The Effects of Videoconferencing,Class Size,and Learner Characteristics on Training Outcomes

ABSTRACT We examined direct and interaction effects of learners' characteristics (cognitive ability, prior knowledge, prior experience, and motivation to learn) and classroom characteristics (videoconferencing and class size) on learning from a 16-week course. A 2times2 quasi-experimental design varied the class size between large (∼60 students) and small (∼30 students) and between traditional classes with the instructor always present and classes taught using a videoconferencing system with the instructor present at each site every other week. Theory regarding instructor immediacy was used to predict that larger and videoconferenced classes would have negative effects on learner reactions and learning, but that highly motivated learners would overcome the negative effects on learning. Interactions between videoconferencing and motivation to learn, and class size and motivation to learn, were found in support of the theory. Research and practice implications are discussed.     

Learner instruction,attitudes during class and academic achievement of junior high school students in Korea: a panel analysis

This study examined changes in the structural relationship among learner-centred classes perceived by Korean junior high school students, attitudes during class and academic achievement. A linear change model was identified as optimal, showing a steady increase over time for each parameter. The higher the initial value for learner-centred classes, the higher both the initial value and rate of change was for attitudes during class and academic achievement. The initial values for attitudes during class also had a significant effect on initial values of academic achievement, suggesting that attitudes are important in increasing academic achievement. The rate of change of both learner-centred classes and attitudes during class significantly influenced the rate of change of academic achievement.     

Where class size really matters: Class size and student ratings of instructor effectiveness

We examine the impact of class size on student evaluations of instructor performance using data on all economics classes offered at the University of California, Santa Barbara from Fall 1997 to Spring 2004. A particular strength of this data is the opportunity to control for both instructor and course fixed effects. In contrast to the literature examining class size effects on test-based outcomes—where results can vary considerably across specifications—we find a large, highly significant, and nonlinear negative impact of class size on student evaluations of instructor effectiveness that is highly robust to the inclusion of course and instructor fixed effects.     

Instructor Reputation and Student Ratings of Instruction

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between instructor reputation, as perceived by students, and student evaluations of the instructor and course. A total of 754 students from 39 classes participated in the study. Based on what students claimed to have heard about the instructor prior to enrolling in the course, they were classified into one of three groups: positive reputation, no information, and negative reputation. Using these groupings, two analyses were performed. In the first, mean overall ratings for the instructor and course were calculated and presented by class. In the second, both instructor and course ratings were modeled using multilevel regression. Results show large mean differences in both instructor and course ratings between the positive and negative reputation groups. More specifically, students who heard positive information regarding the instructor's reputation rated both the instructor and course higher than students who heard negative information about the instructor.     

Does Instructor Type Matter? Undergraduate Student Perception of Graduate Teaching Assistants and Professors

Graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) are used extensively as instructors in higher education, yet their status and authority as teachers may be unclear to undergraduates, to administrators, and even to the GTAs themselves. This study explored undergraduate perception of classroom instruction by GTAs and professors to identify factors unique to each type of instructor versus the type of classes they teach. Data collection was via an online survey composed of subscales from two validated instruments, as well as one open-ended question asking students to compare the same class taught by a professor versus a GTA. Quantitative and qualitative results indicated that some student instructional perceptions are specific to instructor type, and not class type. For example, regardless of type of class, professors are perceived as being confident, in control, organized, experienced, knowledgeable, distant, formal, strict, hard, boring, and respected. Conversely, GTAs are perceived as uncertain, hesitant, nervous, relaxed, laid-back, engaging, interactive, relatable, understanding, and able to personalize teaching. Overall, undergraduates seem to perceive professors as having more knowledge and authority over the curriculum, but enjoy the instructional style of GTAs. The results of this study will be used to make recommendations for GTA professional development programs.     

Comparing student,instructor, classroom and institutional data to evaluate a seven-year department-wide science education initiative

We compared seven unrelated data-sets to evaluate a major education improvement initiative. Perceptions of students in 54 course sections were surveyed regarding the helpfulness of 39 specific teaching or learning strategies, and relative workloads and enthusiasm were compared to their other courses. Classes were observed using an established protocol, instructors completed a teaching practices inventory, and their experience with evidence-based pedagogies was established. A graduation exit survey provided longitudinal indications of changes prior to the study, and institutional student ratings of instruction were obtained. This study sought to determine whether improvements were consistently revealed by these data, how perceptions depended upon class size, course improvement model and instructor experience, and whether student ratings captured consistent perceptions about effectiveness. Overall, results compared favourably. Student perceptions and observed effectiveness depended mainly upon class size and improvement strategy. Students found experiences more effective in courses taught by experienced instructors and in classes observed to be more active. Relative workloads were not correlated with any measure of effectiveness while relative enthusiasm was higher in courses perceived to be more effective. Student ratings were consistent with other data-sets, although they did not provide information specific enough for informing further improvements.     

Performance of Factor Mixture Models as a Function of Model Size,Covariate Effects,and Class-Specific Parameters

Abstract

Factor mixture models are designed for the analysis of multivariate data obtained from a population consisting of distinct latent classes. A common factor model is assumed to hold within each of the latent classes. Factor mixture modeling involves obtaining estimates of the model parameters, and may also be used to assign subjects to their most likely latent class. This simulation study investigates aspects of model performance such as parameter coverage and correct class membership assignment and focuses on covariate effects, model size, and class-specific versus class-invariant parameters. When fitting true models, parameter coverage is good for most parameters even for the smallest class separation investigated in this study (0.5 SD between 2 classes). The same holds for convergence rates. Correct class assignment is unsatisfactory for the small class separation without covariates, but improves dramatically with increasing separation, covariate effects, or both. Model performance is not influenced by the differences in model size investigated here. Class-specific parameters may improve some aspects of model performance but negatively affect other aspects.     

Student perception of instructors: the effect of age,gender and political leaning

Abstract

Students were asked to rank instructors, who differed by age, gender and political leaning, by their expected helpfulness, and how much a student expected to learn. Students selected older instructors as those from whom they would learn the most, but chose young instructors as the most helpful. Overall, male instructors were preferred over female instructors, especially when emphasis was placed on learning. The political leaning of the instructor was a discriminating factor in humanities classes, with liberal instructors preferred over conservatives. The preferred age, gender and political leaning patterns were distinctly different for instructors who were helpful, and from those from whom students thought they would learn the most, indicating a dichotomy between perceived helpfulness and learning. The stereotypic images of instructors did not differ significantly by the students’ own gender and academic major, except for male students ranking conservative instructors higher than females. Students do have stereotypical images of instructors based on the instructor’s age, gender and political leaning.     

The effects of incentives,instructor motivation and feedback strategies on faculty evaluation response rates in large and small class sizes

Four instructor-led strategies designed to increase faculty teaching response rates were assessed across both small (n?<?50) and large (n?≥?50) class sizes. The interventions included: (a) individual incentives, (b) group incentives, (c) instructor motivation and (d) instructor motivation plus feedback. A comparison group utilizing the standard university strategies was also included in the study. The percentage of answers to open-ended or qualitative questions was measured across groups. The results show that implementing a contingency – whether group or individual – significantly improves the rate at which students complete course evaluation ratings regardless of class size; however, these contingencies, while effective for increasing overall rating response rate, do not promote increased submission rates of qualitative comments. Furthermore, it was found that class GPA did not differ across intervention strategy nor did it influence response rates.     

Are class size differences related to pupils' educational progress and classroom processes? findings from the institute of education class size study of children aged 5–7 years

Abstract Despite evidence from the USA that children in small classes of less than 20 do better academically there is still a vociferous debate about the effects of class size differences in schools, and considerable gaps in our understanding of the effects of class size differences. This article summarises results from the most complete UK analysis to date of the educational consequences of class size differences. The study had two aims: first, to establish whether class size differences affect pupils’ academic achievement; and second, to study connections between class size and classroom processes, which might explain any differences found. The study had a number of features that were designed to be an improvement on previous research. It used an ‘observational’ approach, rather than an interventionist one, in order to capture the nature of the relationship between class size and achievement across the full range of observed classes, and it employed a longitudinal design with baseline assessment to adjust for possible non‐random selection of children into classes. The study followed a large sample of over 10,000 children from school entry through the infant stage, i.e. children aged 4–7 years. It used multilevel statistical procedures to model effects of class size differences while controlling for sources of variation that might affect the relationship with academic achievement, and a multimethod research approach, integrating teachers’ judgements and experiences with case studies, and also carefully designed time allocation estimates and systematic observation data. Results showed that there was a clear effect of class size differences on children's academic attainment over the (first) Reception year. In the case of literacy, the lowest attainers on entry to school benefited most from small classes, particularly below 25. Connections between class size and classroom processes were examined and a summary model of relationships presented. Effects were multiple, not singular; in large classes there are more large groups and this presented teachers with more difficulties, in smaller classes there was more individual teacher contact with pupils and more support for learning, and in larger classes there was more pupil inattentiveness and off‐task behaviour. Results support a contextual approach to classroom learning, within which class size differences have effects on both teachers and pupils. It is concluded that much will depend on how teachers adapt their teaching to different class sizes and that more could be done in teacher training and professional development to address contextual features like size of class.     

Mastery learning,rewriting assignments and student learning of criminal justice research methods

This research examines the application of mastery learning theory to the teaching of criminal justice research methods. Mastery learning has students learn each module before proceeding to the next one. Criminal justice research methods is amenable to mastery learning because the course content is cumulative; students need to know each step before proceeding to the next one. Mastery learning was implemented by having students rewrite exercises until they obtained perfect scores. It was tested in three classes taught by the same instructor. Student learning was measured by comparing the difference in scores on a pretest examination with scores on a post-test examination. The results indicated that the better students performed on the exercises, the more they improved on the final examination over the initial examination. The more students rewrote assignments, the better they performed on the assignments and subsequently, the more they improved on the final examination. Students who averaged between one and two rewrites maximized improvement on the examination. The results suggest that mastery learning theory is an effective method of teaching research methods. Although it is more time consuming than traditional methods, it is beneficial to students who are trying to learn difficult material for the first time.     

Student Learning Groups: Does Group Composition Matter?

There has been a shift in university teaching over the past decades to emphasize student achievement and persistence through high-impact practices and collaborative learning. While research supports the efficacy of these pedagogical strategies, it can be difficult to implement them on large campuses. Yet, many criminal justice professors assign students to work in small groups. This study, conducted at a university with a large underrepresented student population, found that the composition of student groups in one criminal justice class can affect the perceived benefits students receive in that class, in other classes, and in general. We found that students placed in a small group with classmates who shared some criminal justice classes reported more student-initiated collaborative learning, expanded support networks, and improved grades in shared courses compared to students in small groups with classmates who shared no classes. This simple intervention has the potential to mimic learning-communities with similar benefits.     

Face-to-face versus computer-mediated discussion of teaching cases: Impacts on preservice teachers’ engagement, critical analyses, and self-efficacy

Two frequently-used discussion protocols were investigated as part of a program to implement teaching cases in undergraduate educational psychology classes designed for preservice teachers. One protocol involved synchronous face-to-face (FTF) discussion of teaching cases, which occurred in class after students had individually completed written case analyses as homework outside of class. The other was asynchronous computer-mediated (CM) discussion taking place outside of class, simultaneous to students’ completion of their written case analyses. Six class offerings of an undergraduate child development course taught by two instructors (three classes by each instructor) were randomly assigned within instructor in a quasi-experimental design to one of the three discussion conditions: FTF, CM, or no discussion of the cases across the semester. Findings indicated that both CM and FTF discussion conditions were associated with positive outcomes relative to the control condition. Both CM and FTF discussion related to higher cognitive–affective engagement with the cases than the control condition; and the CM discussion condition was associated with higher cognitive–affective engagement than FTF discussion. In contrast, FTF discussion, but not CM discussion, was associated with higher-than-control-condition case analysis ability at the end of the semester. Potential explanations for these findings and directions for future research are discussed.     

The effect of Twitter posts on students’ perceptions of instructor credibility

Greater numbers of instructors are turning to social networking sites to communicate with students. This study examined whether posting social, scholarly, or a combination of social and scholarly information to Twitter has an impact on the perceived credibility of the instructor. Participants were assigned to one of three groups: a group that viewed social tweets, one that viewed scholarly tweets, and one that viewed a combination of social and scholarly tweets. Participants were then asked questions about the instructor’s perceived credibility. Results show that participants who viewed only the social tweets rated the instructor significantly higher in perceived credibility than the group that viewed only the scholarly tweets. No other significant differences were found among the groups. These results have implications for both teaching and learning, as there is an established link between perceived instructor credibility and positive learning outcomes.     

College Classroom Environments: Disciplinary and institutional-type differences and effects on academic achievement in introductory courses

Using the College Classroom Environment Scales (CCES) and controlling for differences in class size, it was found that there were significant differences in students' perceptions of their classroom social climates depending on the type of collegiate institution they attended. Students at research universities perceived their classes as having more structure than did those at two year colleges and liberal arts colleges and they perceived less concern by instructors for their personal development and learning than did students at liberal arts colleges. Two-year college students perceived that their classes had higher academic standards than did their counterparts at liberal arts colleges. When comparing classes (and controlling for class size) in English composition, laboratory sciences, and behavioral sciences, it was found that students in English classes perceived them as being the most intellectually exciting and interesting, as being the most academically rigorous, as having the least amount of formal structure, and as promoting more friendships and cooperation among students (than in behavioral sciences classes). Laboratory sciences classes were perceived as having the most hostile and intimidating environments. Significant interactions of institutional type and academic discipline occurred on all scales of the CCES. It was found that perceptions of the classroom environment differentially affected students' course grades in each of the academic discipline areas.Mary E. Vahala is currently Associate Director of Student Activities and Centers at the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse and teaches in the college student personnel program. She obtained an Ed.D. in counseling and student personnel services from the University of Georgia. Her research interests focus on environmental assessment. Roger B. Winston, Jr. obtained his Ph.D. in counseling and student personnel services from the University of Georgia. He is professor and coordinator of the student affairs administration specialty in the Department of Counseling and Human Development Services at the University of Georgia. His research interests include environmental and outcomes assessment in higher education and the psychosocial development of college students.     

Exploring student perceptions of group interaction and class satisfaction in the web-enhanced classroom

This paper presents an exploratory study of a web-enhanced televised class encouraging learner–learner interaction in small online groups. The purpose of the study was to examine whether various interactions among students in small groups could substitute for one-on-one interaction between the instructor and each student and lead to high levels of perceived class interaction and student satisfaction. It was found that perceptions of overall class interaction and student satisfaction seem to be positively affected by small group interaction. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Instructor fluency leads to higher confidence in learning,but not better learning

Students’ judgements of their own learning often exceed their knowledge on a given topic. One source of this pervasive overconfidence is fluency, the perceived ease with which information is acquired. Though effects of fluency on metacognitive judgments have been explored by manipulating relatively simple stimuli such as font style, few studies have explored the effects of fluency on more complex forms of learning encountered in educational settings, such as learning from lectures. The present study manipulated the fluency of a 31-min video-recorded lecture, and measured its effects on both perceived and actual learning. In the fluent condition, the instructor used non-verbal gestures, voice dynamics, mobility about the space, and appropriate pauses. In the disfluent condition, the same instructor read directly from notes, hunched over a podium, rarely made eye contact, used few non-verbal gestures, spoke in monotone pitch, and took irregular and awkward pauses. Though participants rated the fluent instructor significantly higher than the disfluent instructor on measures of teaching effectiveness and estimated that they had learned more of the material, actual learning between the two groups did not differ as assessed by a memory test over the lecture contents given immediately (Experiment 1) or after a 1-day delay (Experiment 2). This counterintuitive result reveals an “illusion of learning” due to fluency in lecture-based learning, a very common form of instruction.     

Examining direct and indirect effects of classroom procedural justice on online students’ willingness to talk

Interest in understanding what constitutes effective instruction online continues to grow as more universities adopt mediated formats for teaching. However, engaging students in productive, content-related conversation in online courses remains challenging. Several variables may influence student willingness to talk in online classes – procedural justice, affect towards the instructor, and perceived cognitive learning – each with probable direct and indirect effects on student inclinations for communicating in the classroom. This study proposes a model predicting student willingness to talk in online classes. Results indicate initial support for the proposed model, and practical implications for instructors teaching online courses are suggested.     

The Impact of Instructional Technology Use,Course Design,and Sex Differences on Students’ Initial Perceptions of Instructor Credibility

This study explores the impact that instructional technology use, course design, and sex differences have on students’ initial perceptions of instructors’ credibility (i.e., competence, trustworthiness, and perceived caring). Participants included 864 students from two Midwestern universities who were randomly assigned to one of 16 experimental conditions (i.e., scenarios) manipulating the use of technology across two types of courses and across two types of instructors (i.e., male and female instructors). Multivariate analyses revealed a two-way interaction effect of technology use by student sex on perceptions of instructor credibility. Follow-up procedures revealed both a curvilinear and a linear effect for technology use on students’ perceptions of instructor competence. In terms of instructor trustworthiness, however, only a curvilinear effect emerged. Finally, the results suggested that technology use has both a curvilinear and a linear effect on perceptions of perceived caring, though the linear effect size was marginal at best. Among the most important implications of this research is the fact that technology use produced the strongest effect size for the perceived caring dimension of instructor credibility.