The development and maintenance of odor-based double-alternation responding under conditions of Thorazine and Elavil injection

Two experiments investigating odor production and utilization in rats under the effects of Thorazine and Elavil injections, respectively, are reported. In Experiment 1, significantly slower speeds shown by the Thorazine-injected subjects indicated that this drug depressed performance. It is felt that depressed performance allowed these subjects to attend and respond to odor cues earlier in Phase 1 than did saline-injected control animals. Reversing the injection conditions (Phase 2) failed to disrupt already-established patterning. During the first phase of Experiment 2, Elavil-injected subjects failed to establish patterned responding, whereas such responding was readily established by saline-injected subjects. Reversing the injection conditions (Phase 2) resulted in the rapid development of double-alternation patterning by the subjects that were shifted from Elavil to saline and in the maintenance of such responding by the animals shifted from saline to Elavil.     

Analysing novices analysing Prolog: what stories do novices tell themselves about Prolog?

Informal observations of Prolog learners showed that, despite being presented with correct information and models, students still tended to construct their own idiosyncratic explanations of events, and, characteristically, they defended these ‘stories’ fiercely when tutorial intervention was attempted. Although the stories were often so flawed that the student's future progress was potentially hampered, it was nevertheless true that learning could not have proceeded at all without them. It seems that if we are to understand the novice Prolog programmer, we need to know about these stories, their source, and what, if anything, they have in common from one learner to another. Pain and Bundy (1987) posed the question “What stories should we tell novice Prolog programmers?” in order to teach them Prolog. In our research, we ask: “What stories do novices Prolog programmers tell themselves?” in order to learn Prolog. Observational studies undertaken showed that students used tacit knowledge of human discourse processes both to interpret the language used to communicate with the computer and to interpret the behaviour of the machine. Students did not appreciate the fundamental differences between natural discourse (as takes place amongst humans) and formal discourse (as takes place between humans and machines), and confused elements of the discourse levels. This can be an effective initial learning strategy, but unless its limitations are recognised, programs are inevitably incomplete at some level. Examples from these studies are reported here with illustrative protocol fragments.     

“The Scientific Method” as Myth and Ideal

“The Scientific Method” as it has been portrayed in popular and introductory contexts has been declared a myth. The variation that one finds in introductory presentations of “The Scientific Method” is explained by the fact that there is no canonical account among historians and philosophers of science. What, in particular, is wrong with “The Scientific Method”? This essay provides a fairly comprehensive survey of shortcomings of “The Scientific Method”. Included are corrections to several misconceptions that often accompany such presentations. Rather than treating “The Scientific Method” as a useful approximation or an ideal, the myth should be discarded. Lessons can be learned for introductory pedagogical contexts from considering the shortcomings of the myth.     

Symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and home learning environment (HLE): findings from a longitudinal study

The concept of “Home Learning Environment” (HLE) covers activities in a family providing intellectual stimulation for a child, such as reading to him or her or visiting libraries. Numerous studies have shown an association between HLE and children's cognitive development. In this longitudinal study, we focus on HLE as a predictor for children's behavioral development, namely, for later symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), controlling for relevant aspects like socioeconomic status (SES), or television viewing behavior. We analyzed the development of ADHD symptoms from kindergarten to the end of grade 2 and possible associations with HLE, SES, and television exposure, using a German community sample (N?=?924). Results indicated that ADHD symptoms were negatively and significantly correlated to HLE for all five measurement points as well as to SES (except T4) and to television exposure for T1 to T4. Observing later development, only early HLE but not SES or television exposure served as a significant predictor for ADHD symptoms at school, when age, sex, and ADHD symptoms in kindergarten were controlled for. A structural equation model showed that HLE acted as a mediator between SES and later ADHD symptoms. Our results highlight the importance of the concept of home learning environment also for children's behavioral development. As a consequence, parents should be supported in offering their children a more favorable learning environment.     

The PISA mathematics regime: knowledge structures and practices of the self

Within mathematics education research, the responses to the Programme for International Student Assessment’s (PISA’s) international testing regime tend to accept its framework and results as necessary points of reference, even when offering a critical reinterpretation or challenging national policy discourses based on PISA. In this article, we offer a different approach to the critique of PISA, drawing on theoretical tools provided by Bernstein and Foucault, to ask what the PISA regime achieves. Our understanding of this achievement encompasses both the production of knowledge structures and the production of students, teachers and other agents as subjects. We propose that the theoretical approach we offer provides a methodological entry point into analysis of the texts comprising the PISA mathematics regime. Analysis of a single PISA item is used to illustrate the insights that may be gained from such a theoretical lens. Such insights into the logic of PISA have the potential to allow us better to understand and hence contest the role that PISA and other large-scale assessment regimes may play in global and local policy discourses.     

Inside information — A door to the future?

Information Technology has the potential to provide virtually any educational requirement which the human mind can imagine. Before ideas can become applications, however, there have to be a suitable infrastructure and detailed procedures, otherwise they merely become historical footnotes. Inside Information, a scheme developed by the B.B.C. and the City and Guilds of London Institute, uses Information Technology in some novel ways and in some new contexts. The linking of it to a short-course programme sponsored by the Department of Education and Science opens up a much wider range of possibilities. The article explains the background to the development of Inside Information and its linking to the Department's short-course programme. It shows how such linking is necessary to enable the potential of the scheme to be realised. Inside Information, as it is now being developed, makes distinctions between formal, nonformal and informal education meaningless for most purposes. Medium- and long-term scenarios are suggested. Exciting as they are, these scenarios cannot become reality until the necessary infrastructure and procedures have been created.     

School-age passwords: C.I.A.

CIA does not stand for what you ordinarily would think, The Central Intelligence Agency! These initials can be quite meaningful to caregivers and definitely beneficial to school-agers who are involved in before and after school care. CIA—Creativity, Imagination and Anticipation! These are key words and functions which can enhance a school-age program.     

An examination of self-directed contract learning as an instructional strategy

In recent years, instructors, academic programs, and innovative educational institutions have begun utilizing self-directed learning concepts and contract learning structures for assumed development of student self-directed learning outcomes. However, prior investigations of development of self-directed learning have been hortative in form or have examined correlative relationships of self-directed behavior with specific learner characteristics. Does learner participation in a self-directed contract learning course influence his/her future behavior and attitudes toward self-directed learning? This study examined the impact of a self-directed contract learning course upon participant self-directed learning behavior and attitudes. Findings of this study were examined from three forms of impact evaluation. Significant positive gains were noted on participant pre- and postgain scores on the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS). Course evaluations noted a majority of positive participant responses regarding perceived changes in knowledge and skill of self-directed learning as well as reported value of the course experience. The third form of impact evaluation came from observational diaries analysis. Diaries from selected students and the instructor were analyzed for major themes and transitions. A discussion of these themes and transition points are presented in a framework analysis of the Fuller and Bown “Concerns model.” Findings are discussed for their varying significance in understanding the development of self-directed learning behavior.     

Implementing the 1981 Education Act

This article examines factors affecting the development and implementation of Education Policy with special reference to the 1981 Education Act for England and Wales. Research is reported about professional practice and administrative behaviour in special education assessment. Six professional and administrative factors are identified which may affect the implementation of the new special education legislation:

1. The nature of the professional domain of special education assessment;
2. The emergence of competing definitions of special educational need and good practice;
3. The concern for professional and administrative accountability;
4. The concern for the rights of users of special education provision;
5. The politicisation of special education through the development of interest groups;
6. The market relations between supply and demand in special education provision.

     

Essential foundations for establishing equivalence in cross-national higher education assessment

The global context of contemporary higher education demands international benchmarks. Quality assurance of teaching and learning would benefit from the insights gained from cross-cultural assessments. If cross-cultural assessments are used it is imperative that equivalence is assured, requiring attention to the technical standards used. In this paper we draw on our experiences implementing the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development’s Assessment of Higher Education Learning Outcomes (AHELO) Feasibility Study across 17 countries. We consider the key standards required in a number of core technical areas to achieve equivalence. We discuss how different elements were achieved in the AHELO Feasibility Study. These include the development of assessment materials for use across languages; selection and engagement of students; delivery of assessment materials and analysis of assessment data.     

Does academic apprenticeship increase networking ties among participants? A case study of an energy efficiency training program

In order to address the requirements of future education in different fields of academic professional activity, a model called Academic Apprenticeship Education was initiated in Finland in 2009. The aim of this article is to analyse the development of expert networks in the context of a 1-year Academic Apprenticeship Education model in the field of energy efficiency, which is a new and rapidly developing knowledge-intensive field. We examined the creation of networking ties among all course participants, the process of networking in small groups, and individual participants’ networking activity. Data was collected by administering a social networking questionnaire in the beginning and at the end of the training to all course participants (n = 87) and analysed using social network analysis and repeated measures ANOVA. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with organizers of the training to examine how the operational practices of the training supported networking. The results indicated that there was little change in the networking ties among all course participants. However, those small groups that were able to communicate appeared to create internal linkages. At the individual level, more new ties emerged for private sector actors than for public sector actors. In conclusion, we propose that a consolidated educational model should be created for the Academic Apprenticeship Education model in general. The quality of education might be better assured if the current ad hoc networks were not the only way to organise knowledge exchange among participants.     

Short-term retention in rats: The effect of goal-arm confinement on delayed alternation performance

Gordon and his associates (e.g., Gordon & Feldman, 1978,Learning and Motivation,9, 164–178; Feldman & Gordon, 1979,Learning and Motivation,10, 198–210; Gordon, Taylor, & Mower, 1981,American Journal of Psychology,94, 309–322) have reported that a reactivation treatment significantly enhances memory for prior forcings in delayed alternation using rats. The reactivation treatment consisted of placing the rat in the goal arm to which it had been forced previously on that trial. The confinement occurred in the absence of food and was 5 sec in duration. The present experiments explored the possibility that the treatment might influence performance by affording an opportunity for new information to be acquired during the confinement period. Evidence consistent with this view was found in that (1) accuracy was reduced on trials in which the initial event was a 5-sec confinement to the arm opposite that of the target forcing and (2) increasing the duration of the confinement from 5 to 15 to 45 sec increased the magnitude of this effect. It was concluded that the effectiveness of goal-arm confinement as a reactivation treatment does not necessarily implicate processes of retrieval in delayed alternation behavior.     

Development and formative evaluation of multimedia case studies for Instructional Design and Technology students

This study describes the development of three case studies that included a combination of multimedia production and instructional design skills within a particular setting. These case studies incorporated real-life incidents from 47 professional instructional designers. These instructional designers described a total of 146 activities involving instructional design and/or multimedia production activities. Employing an emergent theme analysis approach, nine distinct themes developed from these activities and were included in the case studies. These themes included: Collaboration; Diffusion of Innovations; Formative Evaluation; Instructional Design; Interactive Instruction; Learner Analysis; Online Instruction; Technical Infrastructure; and Video Solutions. Fifty-seven Instructional Design and Technology graduate students evaluated the effectiveness of these case studies and considered the case studies as being valuable in furthering their understanding of related multimedia production and instructional design activities. The intent of these case studies was to enable Instructional Design and Technology students to comprehend the relationship between multimedia production and instructional design activities.     

Retrospective and prospective short-term memory in delayed response tasks in rats

Separate groups of rats were trained and tested on asymmetrically and symmetrically reinforced successive delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) or delayed discrimination (DD) tasks in Experiment 1. Each rat received training and testing on symmetrically reinforced DMTS and DD tasks in Experiment 2. The only difference between each task was that the rats had to respond correctly to a light or tone test stimulus, S₂, if it matched a light or tone sample stimulus, S₁, in DMTS, but could respond to either S₂ if S₁ had been a particular stimulus in DD. Only correct leverpresses were reinforced in the asymmetrically reinforced version of each task. Both correct presses and correct omissions were reinforced in the symmetrically reinforced version of each task. Response biases to leverpress during tests for delayed responding to S₁ were reduced in both symmetrically reinforced tasks, but only in the DD task did such contingencies produce consistently poorer performance in responding to either S, in Experiment 1. Declines in accuracy of performance that occurred in both experiments were greater to the visual than to the auditory S₁ only in the DMTS tasks with increased intervals between S₁ and S₂. A third experiment, in which rats had to respond to S₂ if it matched S₁ (DMTS) or if S₂ mismatched S, (DMmTS), was carried out. Modality of S₁ similarly affected accuracy of delayed responding in each task, as in the first two experiments. Methodological and theoretical implications of these results are discussed in terms of Honig and Thompson’s (1982) dual-process theory of working memory.     

Towards fairer assessment

Drawing on the largest Australian collection and analysis of empirical data on multiple facets of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education in state schools to date, this article critically analyses the systemic push for standardized testing and improved scores, and argues for a greater balance of assessment types by providing alternative, inclusive, participatory approaches to student assessment. The evidence for this article derives from a major evaluation of the Stronger Smarter Learning Communities. The first large-scale picture of what is occurring in classroom assessment and pedagogy for Indigenous students is reported in this evaluation yet the focus in this article remains on the issue of fairness in student assessment. The argument presented calls for “a good balance between formative and summative assessment” (OECD, Synergies for Better Learning An International Perspective on Evaluation and Assessment, Pointers for Policy Development, 2013) at a time of unrelenting high-stakes, standardized testing in Australia with a dominance of secondary as opposed to primary uses of NAPLAN data by systems, schools and principals. A case for more “intelligent accountability in education” (O’Neill, Oxford Review of Education 39(1):4–16, 2013) together with a framework for analyzing efforts toward social justice in education (Cazden, International Journal of Educational Psychology 1(3):178–198, 2012) and fairer assessment make the case for more alternative assessment practices in recognition of the need for teachers’ pedagogic practice to cater for increased diversity.     

College student drug usage in a state system as a function of type of institution

Over 4,500 students from 28 universities, colleges, and junior colleges constituting a state system of higher education were compared on extent of drug use. At least two of the three pairs of groups differed on reported usage of six of the substances, with the largest differences being between universities and junior colleges on alcohol and marihuana. A discriminant analysis showed that the nine items formed two differentiating dimensions—Alcohol Usage and Hallucinogen/LSD Usage—in separating the groups. Despite the statistical significance, the differences in terms of actual numbers of users were small. Inferences of the results are discussed.     

Mathematical education versus critical education

This paper concentrates upon the relationship between mathematical education (ME) and critical education (CE) connected with the Frankfurt School and Critical Theory. To make the discussion as precise as possible a distinction is made between three alternatives in ME: Structuralism, pragmatism, and process-orientation. These alternatives are related to the key terms of CE in order to show the extent to which ME and CE contradict each other. The conclusion is that there does not exist any integration — nor even any close relationship-between ME and CE. Finally, this result is discussed in the light of the following two theses:

1. It is necessary to increase the interaction between ME and CE, if ME is not to degenerate into one of the most important ways of socializing students into the technological society and at the same time destroying the possibilities for developing a critical attitude towards precisely this technological society.
2. It is important for CE to interact with subjects from the technical sciences, and among these ME, if CE is not to be taken over by the technological development and fade away into an unimportant and uncritical educational theory.

     

The Medical School Learning Environment Survey: an examination of its factor structure and relationship to student performance and satisfaction

The Medical School Learning Environment Survey (MSLES) was used with a sample of 311 undergraduate medical students in British Columbia, Canada, to assess the seven scales of Medical Breadth of Interest, Personal Breadth of Interest, Emotional Climate, Flexibility, Meaningful Learning Experience, Organization, Nurturance and Student–Student Interaction. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to support the validity of the MSLES when used with this sample.