试述近代中国的观审制度

观审制度是近代中国一项特殊的司法制度,它是西方列强通过不平等条约攫取在华司法特权的产物,也是列强在华行使领事裁判权的重要方式之一。观审制度自确立以来,由于条约对领事观审权的模糊规定,中外之间对此产生激烈的司法争夺。争夺中,领事观审权不断地延伸权限,直至其被撤废,中国的司法制度才迎来春天。     

近代中国领事裁判权的形成与收回

鸦片战争之后,西方列强通过侵略战争和不平等条约在中国建立了领事裁判权制度.领事裁判权在西方列强所掠取的各种权益中处于核心地位,是保障列强各种特权的基础.在意识到领事裁判权的危害后,废除领事裁判权制度一直是近代中国废约运动的中心内容.中华民国北京政府、南京政府在民间废约运动的推动下,经过长期的外交努力,自巴黎和会到太平洋战争,终于废除了领事裁判权.当然,这并不意味着中国已摆脱了半殖民地的地位,中国要真正成为独立强国,还须长期的努力和奋斗.     

领事裁判权与治外法权

人教版必修教材《中国近代现代史》下册第二章第三节讲到:“1943年11月,国民政府分别与英美签订协议,宣布英美等国通过不平等条约攫取的治外法权等一些特权被废除。这是国民政府对外政策取得的重要成果。”在教材所涉及的几个主要不平等条约中,列强攫取的特权主要有:1.领事裁判权;2.协定关税;3.片面最惠国待遇;4.沿海贸易及内河航运权;5.租界;6.租借地和势力范围;7.驻军权。在这些特权中,并未出现“治外法权”这一概念。那么文中所说的“治外法权”该如何理解?是否等同于“领事裁判权”呢?中国最早同意外国享有领事裁判权,见于1843年10月《…     

列强对华领事裁判权的确立

领事裁判权,对中国而言,为领土内他国的裁判权;对各权利国来说,则是在本国领土之外的裁判制度.对华领事裁判权,乃是外国侵略者强迫中国缔结的不平等条约中所规定的一种非法的司法特权.这是对国家属地优越权的侵犯.现就领事裁判权的确立过程做初步的探讨.     

试论近代“会审”制度

“会审”是中国近代一项特殊的司法制度，它是西方列强通过不平等条约所攫取的侵华特权，是列强在华行使其领事裁判权的重要方式之一。会审法庭最先创设于上海外国租界，并陆续扩展到鼓浪屿、汉口的外国租界和东清铁路，列强通过会审特权的行使，扩大了在华的领事裁判权。同时，列强在会审法庭中，不以中国法律为审判依据，干预法庭诉讼程序，不仅破坏了中国司法主权的独立性，而且侵害了中国人民的利益。会审制度的确立与发展，是中国近代半殖民地化加深的重要标志。     

五卅运动为何要提出废除领事裁判权

五卅运动是继五四运动后的又一次全国规模的反帝爱国运动,沉重打击了中外反动势力,将中国人民的反帝斗争推向新的高潮。但教学中许多学生产生了这样的疑问:五卅运动是由1925年5月上海日商内外棉纱厂工人抗议日本资本家无理开除中国工人举行罢工,日方开枪打死工人、共产党员顾正红而引发的,为什么五卅运动中工商学联合会却提出取消领事裁判权的要求呢?本文试从领事裁判权的由来和危害浅析释疑。所谓“领事裁判权”指殖民国家的侨民不受居留国法律管辖,是列强压迫和奴役殖民地、半殖民地的一种特权制度。表现为:侨民在居留国犯罪,或成为民事诉…     

晚清时期英国在中国新疆特权获得

晚清时期英国在中国新疆特权的获得过程非常特殊，这些特权是英国在新疆没有领事馆的情况下就取得的。文章论述了此期英国在新疆攫取管理英籍侨民权、领事裁判权和贸易免税权等特权的过程，并简要分析了其特殊性。     

近代中国的领事裁判权制度

领事裁判权是西方列强在近代蓄意侵夺中国司法主权的特权制度，是它们通过鸦片战争，用不平等条约强行建立的，其后又获得进一步发展。享有这一特权的各国，对它们的在华侨民行使司法管辖权，相应设立、采行各种类型的审判机构和制度，除了极有限的民事范围，这一特权主要适用它们本国的法律。列强还将这一属人的特权扩大为属地的特权，在某些地域对华人实行某种程度的司法管辖，建立了不同形式的会审制度。     

民国成立后孙中山为什么承认不平等条约

中华民国成立时，孙中山在《临时大总统宣言书》中提出：务要一洗“满清时代辱国之举措”。1912年1月6日，孙中山在答复南京《大陆报》记问及“领事裁判权其将撤废乎”时毫不犹豫地指出：“自当撤弃，一待改革既定，即须实行此事。”照常理推论，孙中山就任临时大总统后，本应为中国废除不平等条约带来希望，有所作为，但是事实恰恰相反，他不但未能提出反帝“废约”口号，却反其道而行之，出现言行差距甚大，认识与行动相互矛盾的现象。     

领事裁判权及其在中国的成废

领事裁判权是近代中外不平等条约中的一项重要内容,曾是列强侵略中国的重要手段,也是中国开始进入半殖民地时代的耻辱标志之一。了解领事裁判权的渊源及其在中国的发展过程对于学习近现代史而言是十分必要的。一、领事裁判权的发端中世纪后期,随着商业贸易的发展,在中西欧国家——荷兰、英国、丹麦、意大利等国的沿海地区形成了一大批国际商业都市。活跃在这些城市里的外国商人常常自发地推选出若干个“仲裁领事”或“商人领事”,专门负责调解各国商人之间的业务纠纷。这些领事有权对本国国籍的商人行使专属的民事和刑事管辖权。这种权利就是     

卡思卡特城堡

It is worthy of noting that, whilst Crookston Castle witnessed the earlier and happier portion of Mary's variegated life,     

不同的吃喝玩乐

一、吃和喝吃苹果 eat an apple, 吃药 take medicine,吃糖 have some sweets,吃饭 have one's meals,吃馆子 dine out,吃惊 be surprised/     

漏洞百出的教育

Many college freshmen arrive woefully unprepared to do college work, and as disadvantaged populations continue to grow, the share of the American work force that has made it through college is expected to plummet. Many experts blame that educational failure not just on high schools but also on colleges. School & College, a special report by The Chronicle, looks at efforts to fix the system. What reforms would better prepare students for college? What should schools and colleges be doing differently? How should state and federal officials help?     

Western and Eastern culture differences in commercial field

The communication of people partially is the communication of cultures. Culture has a direct effect on international commercial activities in all aspects. Different conceptions about time, space, equality, law and the like, lead people to deal with things in different ways. So to know cultures of the counterpart is to facil-itate our enterprises so as to have a smooth and successful communication in commercial activity.     

只要努力,不要后悔

There are numbers of crossroads on our long and unpredictable life journey where we totally have no idea about which direction to choose. No matter what our decision is, we should not turn back, but face the music and go ahead instead. I am this kind of girl who always does try without regretting, one example is how I dealt with my love.     

浅谈移民问题

Migration occurs behind a variety of reasons and has a great effect on the whole world. People may migrate in order to improve their economic situation, or in order to escape civil strife, persecution, and environmental disasters. The impact of migration is complex, bringing both benefits anddisadvantages. This paper briefly talks about the causes of migration, the allocation of benefits, and the ways in which individual countries and the international community deal with this important subject.     

风的曲线

Rosco and I wait for the fishermen to return.I sit at a wooden bench near the store at Mt.Baker Resort and watch the clouds change shape. Rosco has my belt around his neck and an eight foot tow chain hooked to a tree. Dogs must be on a leash. Ducks and rabbits are loose.     

团图为数的图中的闭团贯数

Given a graph G,a subgraph C is called a clique of G if C is a complete subgraph of G maximal under inclusion and |C|≥2. A clique-transversal set S of G is a set of vertices of G such that S meets all cliques of G. The clique-transversal number, denoted as TC (G), is the minimum cardinality of a clique-transversal set in G. The clique-graph of G, denoted as K (G), is the graph obtained by taking the cliques of G as vertices, and two vertices are adjacent if and only if the corresponding cliques in G have nonempty intersection. Let F be a class of graphs G such that F={G|K(G) is a tree}. In this paper the graphs in F having independent clique-transversal sets are shown and thus TC (G)/|G|≤1/2 for all G ∈ F.     

Sister Carrie, an Adherent of Desires

Sister Carrie is one of the most controversial characters in American literature.Thought as a "fallen woman" firstly,she was defined as a "new woman" by some critics later. However, by digging into the motivaton behind the whole process of Carrie's "success", the relationship between Carrie and her creator (the author), the social conditions of then American, it can be found that Carrie has never been free-standing on her thought and she has never found her real-sdf even after becoming a famous actress. In a society dominated by mass consumerism Carrie is only an adherent of her own desires. She also is a representative of all those country girls flooded into cities, a symbol and a sacrifice of the urbanization of America in a time countryside was overcome by cities.