Sex-Role Orientation Research: Review and Implications for Counselor Education

A review of sex-role orientation research reveals two areas of particular importance for counselor educators: interpersonal behaviors and cognitive processing. Persons with androgynous, masculine, and feminine sex-role orientations have been found to differ in their interpersonal competence and their cognitive processing of perceptions of self and others. In both areas, research points to persons with androgynous sex-role orientations as being more flexible, self-assured, adaptive, accepting, and competent in interpersonal interactions than persons with more masculine or feminine orientations. Because counseling is a complex interpersonal process, these conclusions suggest a preference for an androgynous counselor. Implications for the impact of sex-role orientation on the dynamics of the counseling relationship and the counseling process are explored. Studies supporting the efficacy of “training” for androgyny, and those offering some evidence for the androgynous counselor as the more competent facilitator of positive change in clients are reviewed. Research questions are proposed to specifically assess the relationship of sex-role orientation and the acquisition and performance of counseling skills.     

The Relation of Gender Understanding to Children''s Sex-typed Preferences and Gender Stereotypes

Our goal was to explore how children's understanding of gender as a social category relates to their acquisition of sex-typed knowledge and preferences. Children's gender concepts, sex-typed preferences, and stereotyped knowledge were measured in 61 boys and girls (3-5 years). Gender concept measures included ability to identify and to discriminate the sexes, understanding gender group membership, temporal stability of gender, and gender consistency over situational changes. Children improved with age on most of the measures except gender consistency. With the exception of consistency, measures of gender concept understanding were found to be related to children's stereotyped toy and clothing knowledge and/or to their sex-typed toy preferences (with age controlled). It was shown that only rudimentary gender understanding is needed prior to children learning about sex stereotypes and prior to showing strong sex-typed preferences for peers or toys. The roles of gender identity, stability, consistency, and group membership in the sex-typing process are discussed.     

Children''s Housework and Psychosocial Functioning: The Mediating Effects of Parents'' Sex-Role Behaviors and Attitudes

We examined sex-typed housework of children from dual- and single-earner families and its implications for children's adjustment as a function of congruencies between children's work and parents' sex-role behaviors and attitudes. Participants were 152 firstborn 9-12-year-olds (85 girls, 67 boys) and their parents. All fathers and 50% of mothers were employed. In home interviews parents rated their sex-role attitudes, and children rated their competence, stress, and parent-child relationships. In 7 nightly telephone interviews, children and parents described their household tasks for that day. Analyses revealed sex and earner-status differences in children's and parents' involvement in traditionally feminine and masculine tasks. Correlations between levels of parents' and children's task involvement were significant only in the case of fathers and sons in single-earner families. Regarding the connections between task performance and child adjustment, we found that incongruency between boys' sex-typed tasks and their fathers' sex-role behaviors and attitudes was linked to poorer psychosocial functioning, a pattern that did not hold for girls.     

Ending the perpetuation of sex-role stereotypes in our schools: A possible consequence of psychological androgyny

Research has shown that both historically and currently there has been sex-differentiated staffing in American public schools, with a disproportionate number of female teachers at the elementary level. Concern long has been expressed regarding the impact this might have on the sex-role development of American children and the perpetuation of stereotypic staffing patterns. This article supports the hypothesis that psychologically androgynous individuals might be more likely than masculine or feminine individuals to base teaching level choice upon individual preference without regard for its stereotype as more appropriate for one sex than the other. Data collected from preservice teachers at Washington State University support this hypothesis. It was found that while feminine females were more apt to choose the elementary teaching level, masculine males were more apt to choose secondary teaching. In comparison, androgynous preservice teachers of both sexes were as likely to choose the elementary as secondary teaching level.     

Gender,academic careers and the sabbatical: a New Zealand case study

This article examines academics’ access to and perceptions of sabbaticals at a research-intensive university in New Zealand. Statistical and inductive analysis of survey data from 915 academics (47% of all academics employed) revealed inequalities in access to and experience of sabbaticals, and highlighted academic, personal and gender issues. Men and women were generally united in their views on how family circumstances, children, childcare, partners, unfairness, inequity, transparency and finances, affected ability to take sabbatical leave, and that lack of transparency and gatekeeping were barriers to access. Yet, women indicated greater concern than men about the application process, adequacy of leave and the role of the Head of Department in accessing sabbaticals. Women were also significantly more likely to be ineligible for sabbaticals owing to casual employment status, and women who were eligible tended to take fewer, shorter sabbaticals. Academics view sabbaticals as vital for career progression and the findings highlight the need to facilitate equitable access to sabbatical leave across an institution. Universities need to audit the uptake of sabbaticals by eligible academics and review the processes associated with application, approval and support for sabbatical leave.     

Perceived masculinity,feminity and androgyny among primary school boys: Relationships with the adaptation level of these students and the attitudes of the teachers towards them

The literature suggests that in school setting, particularly in the primary grades, the boy well-adapted and being the object of a positive attitude from the teacher, is the one displaying expressive or femininetype behaviors. To verify the existence of this relationship, three instruments were administered to 38 teachers who evaluated 181 boys aged between six and seven years-old. The results indicate that boys perceived as being masculine are evaluated as being more aggressive than boys perceived as feminine, whereas boys perceived as being feminine obtain higher scores on the anxiety and prosocial scales. Boys classified as androgynous and feminine and evaluated as prosocial are the object of more positive attitudes from the teachers’ part whereas the opposite is true for masculine and externalizing boys. These results support, to a certain extent, the existence of a conflict between the masculine sexrole and the student role, at least such as defined by certain school settings.     

Developmental and individual differences in girls' sex-typed activities in middle childhood and adolescence

Girls' time in sex-typed leisure activities was studied across 2 years in middle childhood ( n =98, M =8.2 years in Year 1), early adolescence ( n =106, M =11.7 years), and middle adolescence ( n =86, M =14.9 years). In annual home interviews, White middle-class girls, mothers, and fathers rated their gendered attitudes, interests, and personality qualities, and saliva samples were used to assess testosterone; activity data were collected in 7 nightly phone interviews. Girls spent more time in feminine than masculine activities except in early adolescence. Girls' and parents' personalities and interests predicted sex-typed activities at each developmental period, but associations between testosterone and activities emerged only in middle childhood.     

Poles apart? Gender differences in proposals for sexuality education content

Are young women and men’s preferences for sexuality education content poles apart? This article explores gender differences in senior school students’ suggestions for issues sexuality education should cover. Findings are analysed in relation to debate about mixed and single sex classrooms and boys’ perceived disinterest in lessons. It is argued that young women and men’s content preferences were largely similar on items that a majority selected for inclusion. Topics less than half of participants named revealed a greater number of gender differences. Employing theoretical insights from feminist post‐structuralism, responses are also examined for how they position young people as sexual subjects and whether these conform to or deviate from perceptions of ‘conventional heterosexualities’. This examination enables an understanding of how young people view themselves as sexual and whether this matches their constitution within sexuality programmes. The implications of students’ content preferences and the way these position them as sexual subjects are considered for the possibilities they present for programme design and delivery.     

《女人想要男人知道什么？》

自芭芭拉·狄·安杰利斯创作了《纽约时报》上的畅销书《你不能不了解他》后，她的读者们就一直请求她创作该书的姊妹篇——一本为两性创作、揭示女人需要在生活中被男人了解、宠爱的书籍。芭芭拉·狄·安杰利斯在她的新书里保持了她一贯坦率、泼辣、切实的文风，同时该书也是一本见地深刻的指南，女人们通过阅读可以更加了解自己并会很乐意将此书推荐给她们的爱人。     

The 'Gender Dimension' of both the 'Narrow' and 'Broad' Curriculum in UK Higher Education: Do women lose out in both?

This article draws on data from a qualitative research study undertaken in an old UK university. The main aim of the study was to measure the impact of gender issues on the university campus, an important part of which was the issue of the curriculum. Individuals were found to operate either a 'narrow' or 'broad' definition of the term 'curriculum'. In either case, there was found to be a 'gender dimension' involved. In male-dominated disciplines a 'narrow' definition of the term 'curriculum' was predominantly in use-appropriate discipline content and an unproblematic body of knowledge, which is to be transferred to students largely by lecturing. The difficulties to be overcome in order to undertake a gender-sensitive evaluation of the curriculum in these departments stemmed from the evaluations of the staff of what the problem was and where it was located. In disciplines that accepted a broader definition, which included the 'informal' curriculum, the gendered division of labour in the domestic sphere was repeated in the university, with the result that the division 'rational/emotional' became an aspect of the masculine/feminine divide. Men as well as women felt that men were less inclined to undertake the emotion work involved in supporting student learning. In this male-dominated society, 'emotion work' such as the pastoral support of students remained virtually invisible, and went largely unrewarded.     

民办高校大学生性别角色与社会适应关系研究简

对福建省民办高校大学生的性别角色与社会适应水平的关系进行研究,结果发现不同的性别角色导致大学生的社会适应能力表现出显著差异。在四种性别角色类型中,男性化和双性化的社会适应能力比女性化和未分化更高,而社会适应能力最好的性别角色是男性化,其次为双性化,未分化的社会适应能力一般,而女性化的社会适应能力最差。这一结果和前期大部分研究支持双性化是理想型性别角色的观点稍有不同。福建省三所民办高校大学生中普遍表现出社会适应性一般。     

The development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: relationships to gender labeling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preference, and family characteristics

The onset and development of preschoolers' awareness of sex role stereotypes, gender labeling, gender identity, and sex-typed toy preference were explored in 26-, 31-, and 36-month-old children. Gender labeling, gender identity, sex-typed toy preferences, and awareness of adult sex role differences were observed in significantly more 26-month-old children than would have been expected by chance. Verbal gender labeling was observed in a majority of 26-month-olds, while verbal and nonverbal gender identity were observed in a majority of 31-month-olds. Nonverbal gender labeling and awareness of adult sex role differences were observed in a majority of children by 36 months. No evidence of awareness of sex differences in children's toys was found in the majority of children at any age. Awareness of sex role differences in children's toys was not related to awareness of adult sex role differences. Brighter children were more aware of adult sex role differences. Sex-typed toy preference was not related to awareness of sex role differences but was related to gender identity. Predictors of sex role development included the mothers' employment, and the father's personality traits, attitudes toward women, and sex-typed activities in the home. Implications for theories of early sex role development are discussed.     

Early Play Arousal, Sex-Typed Play, and Activity Level as Precursors to Later Rough-and-Tumble Play

The present study compared two ways of measuring rough-and-tumble play (R&T) and examined three precursors to this play. Early parental socializing influences (particularly from fathers), "boy" sex-typed play preferences, and activity level were all hypothesized to be associated with later R&T. Objective measures of R&T at nursery school were moderately correlated with ratings of such play by parents and teachers at first grade. Arousal during play at 45 months and extent of R&T at 18 months by fathers, but not mothers, were found to correlate significantly with ratings of R&T at first grade. "Boy" sex-typed play was also significantly associated with first grade R&T. These correlations were similar for both boys and girls. There were no correlates with nursery school R&T that were similar for both sexes. Activity levels were not consistently associated with later R&T behaviors. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.     

Trans*forming college masculinities: carving out trans*masculine pathways through the threshold of dominance

Abstract

Men and masculinities studies are gaining prominence in higher education literature, illuminating how cisgender college men understand and grapple with masculinity. Additionally, the increased visibility of trans* students has fueled the expanding scholarship and attention to their experiences, often however centering on white gender-conforming trans* students with little if any focus on their multiple and intersecting identities. The gap between these two strands of literature risks reifying hegemonic masculinity and genderism, as masculinities continue to be theorized as exclusively shaped and embodied by cisgender men. Through post-intentional and queer phenomenologies, this study seeks to fill that gap by investigating how trans*masculine students conceptualize masculinity/ies, and how that conception is informed by various intersecting and salient identities. Through a multifaceted conceptual framework and disruptive phenomenologies, the study positions trans*masculine students as agentic worldmakers, constructing trans*masculine pathways, with implications for building toward gender liberation for themselves and others.     

“女勇士”：反封建的斗士--女性主义视域下重读汤亭亭的《女勇士》

汤亭亭在《女勇士》中通过极富想像力的虚构与简洁的“说故事”的叙事模式,向读者展示了生活在她周围的三位反封建、反父权的“女勇士”形象：违背封建礼教、以死抗争的无名姑姑;勇于与男权社会相抗衡的“双性同体”花木兰以及敢于向封建传统叫板的英兰,作品充满了女性主义色彩。     

Early Play Arousal,Sex-Typed Play,and Activity Level as Precursors to Later Rough-and-Tumble Play

The present study compared two ways of measuring rough-and-tumble play (R&T) and examined three precursors to this play. Early parental socializing influences (particularly from fathers), "boy" sex-typed play preferences, and activity level were all hypothesized to be associated with later R&T. Objective measures of R&T at nursery school were moderately correlated with ratings of such play by parents and teachers at first grade. Arousal during play at 45 months and extent of R&T at 18 months by fathers, but not mothers, were found to correlate significantly with ratings of R&T at first grade. "Boy" sex-typed play was also significantly associated with first grade R&T. These correlations were similar for both boys and girls. There were no correlates with nursery school R&T that were similar for both sexes. Activity levels were not consistently associated with later R&T behaviors. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.     

The Role of Gender-related Information and Self-Endorsement of Traits in Preadolescents' Inferences and Judgments

The major purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a target child's gender typicality on different aspects of preadolescents' inferences and judgments. The secondary purpose of the study was to investigate the relation between children's self-endorsement of traits and their inferences and judgments. Fifth and sixth graders were shown a video film, portraying a child playing either a gender-appropriate game with members of the same sex or a gender-inappropriate game with members of the other sex. In addition, subjects completed an adapted version of the BSRI and were categorized into sex-typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated subjects. Subjects made a number of different types of judgments and inferences about the target, including inferences about traits, popularity, choice of gift and name, and willingness to engage in activities with the target. All types of inferences and judgments were affected by the variations in the targets' gender-related behaviors, whereas self-endorsement of traits was not related to the inferences and judgments. The results suggest that the gender typicality of the target behavior is salient to preadolescents, regardless of their sex-role orientation.     

Pre‐adolescents' Perceptions of Competence,Motivation and Engagement in Art Activities

This article presents the findings from a small scale qualitative study which focused on pupils' perceptions of competence and motivation towards art experienced in school. These are considered as very important in shaping learning and teaching processes. In particular, the article focuses on the role that perceptions of competence play on pupils' quality of involvement and achievement in art. Participants were chosen based on age, gender and their stated perceptions of competence. Sixteen 11‐12 year olds were interviewed in groups and individually. Pupils' perceptions of competence are identified as a key factor in determining pupils' initial engagement and level of engagement with art activities. Moreover they are thought to be important in shaping their learning preferences at an age when pupils' uncertainty about their abilities in art making is getting stronger. The results are situated within the framework of achievement goal theory and have implications for teaching strategies and for ways of responding to pupils' learning preferences.     

Nonconventional Family Life-Styles and Sex Typing in Six-Year-Olds

Sex role socialization and 6-year-old children's sex-typed knowledge and behavior were compared across 5 nonconventional family types (avant garde, countercultural, conventional alternatives, communal, and changeable/troubled) (n = 154) and a conventionally married comparison sample (n = 51). The avant garde and countercultural families combined the strongest sex egalitarian beliefs, with commitment to a proactive, questioning orientation toward society, and relative stability in family life-style choice. Children in the avant garde and countercultural families also displayed non-sex-typed knowledge of objects and occupations more often than did children in the other families, but all children showed knowledge of sex-typed schemas as well. Only scattered differences were found on other measures of children's sex-typed preferences or in sex-typed behavior. The form of the family or domestic unit (single parent, married couple, unmarried couple, or commune) was not related to sex typing, and socioeconomic measures had little effect, compared to nonconventional family types. Girls had more flexible sex-typing training and displayed non-sex-typed schemas more than boys across family types, conventional and nonconventional alike.