Corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children

The adverse effect of harsh corporal punishment on mental health and psychosocial functioning in children has been repeatedly suggested by studies in industrialized countries. Nevertheless, corporal punishment has remained common practice not only in many homes, but is also regularly practiced in schools, particularly in low-income countries, as a measure to maintain discipline. Proponents of corporal punishment have argued that the differences in culture and industrial development might also be reflected in a positive relationship between the use of corporal punishment and improving behavioral problems in low-income nations. In the present study we assessed the occurrence of corporal punishment at home and in school in Tanzanian primary school students. We also examined the association between corporal punishment and externalizing problems. The 409 children (52% boys) from grade 2 to 7 had a mean age of 10.49 (SD = 1.89) years. Nearly all children had experienced corporal punishment at some point during their lifetime both in family and school contexts. Half of the respondents reported having experienced corporal punishment within the last year from a family member. A multiple sequential regression analysis revealed that corporal punishment by parents or by caregivers was positively related to children's externalizing problems. The present study provides evidence that Tanzanian children of primary school age are frequently exposed to extreme levels of corporal punishment, with detrimental consequences for externalizing behavior. Our findings emphasize the need to inform parents, teachers and governmental organizations, especially in low-income countries, about the adverse consequences of using corporal punishment be it at home or at school.     

Understanding the mediating role of corporal punishment in the association between maternal stress,efficacy, co-parenting and children's adjustment difficulties among Arab mothers

This study, guided by the Family Systems Theory, examines the direct effect of maternal use of corporal punishment on children's adjustment difficulties. Also, it explores whether corporal punishment serves as a mediating factor in the relationship between several maternal characteristics, marital relationships, and children's adjustment difficulties. A total of 2,447 Arab mothers completed anonymous, structured, self-report questionnaires. The use of corporal punishment was generally strongly supported by the Arab mothers in our sample. A greater likelihood of using corporal punishment was found among mothers of boys rather than girls, among mothers with lower perceived self-efficacy to discipline children, and among mothers with a lower perception of their husbands’ participation in child-related labor. In addition, the higher a mother's reports on disagreement with her husband about discipline methods and the stronger her level of maternal stress, the more likely she was to use corporal punishment. Corporal punishment also mediated the association between the above mentioned factors and child adjustment difficulties. Furthermore, a husband's emotional support and family socioeconomic status were directly associated to children's adjustment difficulties. The results of the current study emphasize the need to observe children's development within the context of their family systems and to consider the mutual influences of different subsystems such as marital relationships and mother–child interactions. Prevention and intervention programs should raise parents’ awareness concerning the harmful effects of corporal punishment and take into account the impact of dynamic transactions of parental conflicts and disagreements regarding discipline methods on child outcomes.     

A cross-cultural examination of use of corporal punishment on children: a focus on Sweden and the United States

It appears that Sweden and the United States may be a study in contrasts regarding the sanction and use of corporal punishment on children. A 1979 study of American parents noted that 81% of them employed corporal punishment with children. A different study done in Sweden in 1978 noted that only 26% of parents used corporal punishment with children. What points to the differences in these parenting patterns within the two countries? In addition, a 1977 U.S. Supreme Court case entitled Ingraham vs. Wright ruled that “schools are empowered to carry out corporal punishment.” This court case involved two high school boys in Florida who had been repeatedly struck with wooden paddles. In contrast, Sweden had statutes which prohibited corporal punishment of children in their secondary schools as early as the 1920s. In 1957, the country passed a law which defined corporal punishment as unacceptable for small children in the schools. Then, in 1979, the Swedish government passed a statute prohibiting corporal punishment by parents. Are there differences in the way the two countries view law and its uses? Or, do the cultures sanction violence in general or just violence against children in different ways? This article examines some of the similarities and differences found in American and Swedish treatment of children and proposes what appear to be extreme differences in the way the countries and their people approach corporal punishment.     

Parent discipline in Thailand: Corporal punishment use and associations with myths and psychological outcomes

A basic human right of all children is protection from physical punishment in all settings. Yet, corporal punishment remains common place within families, at home, at school, and elsewhere. In Thailand, cultural beliefs and values might preserve its use. This research sought to explore the use of corporal punishment in Thai homes. It also aimed to investigate young adult retrospective accounts of parent use of corporal punishment and their associations with psychological attributes and the acceptance of certain myths that might perpetuate its use. Two hundred and fifty young people (Mage = 20.26 years, SD = 1.19) recounted their parent’s disciplining strategies related to when they were 10 years old. They also completed the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Rohner, 1999), the Corporal Punishment Myth Scale (Kish & Newcombe, 2015) and responded as parents to a number of child misbehavior scenarios. Overall, 80.4% reported some instance of corporal punishment as a 10-year-old with lifetime prevalence at 85.5%. Receiving corporal punishment was related to poorer psychological outcomes as a young adult. Myths about corporal punishment significantly predicted the use of that discipline strategy in the scenarios. The results are discussed in relation to Thai cultural values and beliefs and the need to gather further evidence to support further policy and legislative changes.     

Attitudes towards corporal punishment and reporting of abuse

OBJECTIVES: To assess physicians' attitudes towards corporal punishment in childhood and their subsequent actions regarding the reporting of child abuse. PARTICIPANTS: 107 physicians (95 pediatricians and 12 family practitioners) who work in hospitals and community clinics in northern Israel were interviewed. Of the participants, 16% were new immigrants. PROCEDURE: A structured interview was conducted by one of two pediatric residents. RESULTS: Attitudes towards corporal punishment were not influenced by the physicians' sex or specialty. Corporal punishment was approved by 58% of the physicians. A significant difference in attitudes towards corporal punishment between immigrants and Israeli born physicians was found (p=.004). Family practitioners and especially senior ones were found significantly less tolerant towards corporal punishment than pediatricians (p=.04). While reporting behavior was not found to be associated with parental status and the past experience of the physicians with child abuse, a significant effect of attitudes towards corporal punishment on reporting behavior was found (p=.01). CONCLUSIONS: (1) Corporal punishment is still perceived as an acceptable disciplinary act by a significant proportion of physicians responsible for the health care of children in our area. (2) Attitudes towards corporal punishment are different between immigrants and native born Israeli trained doctors and, unexpectedly, pediatricians were more tolerant of corporal punishment than family practitioners.     

Exploring the reciprocal relations between mothers’ and fathers’ use and attitudes of corporal punishment in China: A cross-lagged analysis

BackgroundCorporal punishment is a commonly used form of disciplinary technique. Sanctified parental attitudes of corporal punishment have been found to be a significant predictor of parental use of corporal punishment in previous research, while little is currently known about the reciprocal relations between parental use and their attitudes of corporal punishment.ObjectiveThis research aimed to examine the reciprocal relations between mothers’ and fathers’ use and attitudes of corporal punishment in China.MethodsData were collected on a total of 320 Chinese father-mother dyads with their children (10–11 years of age at baseline) through convenience sampling techniques at two time points, one year apart. Parents completed self-report measures of mothers' and fathers' use and attitudes of corporal punishment. Children completed self-report measures of parental corporal punishment.ResultsThe cross-lagged analysis indicated that parental attitudes of corporal punishment in a given year predicted their use of corporal punishment in the subsequent year both for mothers (β = 0.15, p < .01) and fathers (β = 0.10, p < .05), while their corporal punishment in a given year did not predict their attitudes of it in the subsequent year (βs < 0.11, ps > .05).ConclusionsFindings indicate that the reciprocal relations do not emerge, with only attitude-behavior effects being evident for both mothers and fathers, while behavior-attitude effects were not present. Findings in the present study highlight the importance of changing both mothers’ and fathers’ favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment when conducting appropriate prevention intervention to decrease its use.     

Disciplining children: characteristics associated with the use of corporal punishment

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the Social Situational Model of Family Violence through an examination of characteristics associated with the use of ordinary and severe corporal punishment as measured by the Parents-Child Conflict Tactics Scales. METHOD: Logistic Regression used to examine the validity of the model using data from a national sample conducted by the Gallup Organizations. RESULTS: Those with fewer resources (lower income, lower educational attainment) were more likely to be use severe corporal punishment. In addition, those who had been more likely to be socialized into the use of violence were also more likely to use severe corporal punishment. CONCLUSIONS: The social situational model of family violence was supported suggesting that increased efforts be made to give these parents the resources they need to implement alternative discipline strategies.     

Inappropriate child rearing practices as perceived by Jewish immmigrant parents from the former Soviet Union.

OBJECTIVES: First to explore what Jewish immigrant parents from the Former Soviet Union consider to be appropriate and inappropriate child rearing practices, and second what are their help seeking preferences in situations of children at risk. METHOD: Interviews with 273 immigrant parents were conducted in Israel. A semi-structured questionnaire included seven vignettes which related to three areas of parental behaviors: Lack of provision of child's needs, corporal punishment and psychological punishment. In addition, open-ended questions were included about the participants' personal beliefs regarding the use of physical punishment towards children. RESULTS: Suggest a concrete and practical approach towards child rearing practices, support for the utilization of certain types of corporal and psychological punishment, consideration of the gender of the child might be a factor in the approach towards corporal punishment. a perception of children as self sufficient at a fairly young age and a tendency not to cooperate with outsiders in situations of children at risk. CONCLUSIONS: Even though Jewish immigrants from the Former Soviet Union might be in a new country for several years, their background may still have a significant role in their child rearing practices and help seeking patterns. Awareness of their perceptions could provide information which is significant for the accurate assessment of situations of abuse and neglect among the immigrants and for defining appropriate treatment objectives and means for achieving change.     

A randomized controlled trial of an intervention program to Brazilian mothers who use corporal punishment

This study evaluated a positive parenting program to Brazilian mothers who used corporal punishment with their children. The intervention was conducted in four agencies serving vulnerable children, and at a home replica laboratory at the University. Mothers who admitted using corporal punishment were randomly assigned between experimental (n = 20) and control group (n = 20). The program consisted of 12 individual sessions using one unit from Projeto Parceria (Partnership Project), with specific guidelines and materials on positive parenting, followed by observational sessions of mother-child interaction with live coaching and a video feedback session in the lab. The study used an equivalent group experimental design with pre/post-test and follow-up, in randomized controlled trials. Measures involved: Initial Interview; Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) – parent and child versions; Beck Depression Inventory (BDI); observational sessions with a protocol; and a Program Evaluation by participants. Analysis of mixed models for repeated measures revealed significant positive effects on the BDI and SDQ total scores, as well as less Conduct problems and Hyperactivity in SDQ measures from the experimental group mothers, comparing pre with post-test. Observational data also indicated significant improvement in positive interaction from the experimental group mothers at post-test, in comparison with controls. No significant results were found, however, in children’s observational measures. Limitations of the study involved using a restricted sample, among others. Implications for future research are suggested.     

Harsh corporal punishment of Yemeni children: occurrence, type and associations

OBJECTIVE: To examine the occurrence, type and associations of harsh corporal punishment in Yemen. METHODS: Caregiver and teacher reports were obtained on 1,196 Yemeni 7-10-year olds obtained by systematic random sampling of children in the 1st to 4th grades of urban and rural schools. Caregivers (86% mothers) reported on disciplinary practices, socio-familial background, and child psychopathology. Teachers reported on school performance and child psychopathology. RESULTS: More than half of the rural caregivers and about a quarter of the urban caregivers reported using harsh corporal punishment (hitting children with implements, tying them up, pinching them, or biting them). Harsh corporal punishment was significantly associated with poor school performance and both behavioral and emotional difficulties. The socio-familial factors that were independently associated with harsh corporal punishment were: rural area, male gender of the child, low maternal education, and large family size. CONCLUSION: Harsh corporal punishment is very common in Yemen. International findings suggest that the association with school failure and psychological maladjustment may well be causal. Promoting parental use of effective and non-violent disciplinary methods should be a public health priority. Practice implications: Yemen urgently needs to develop and evaluate programs that teach parents how to use culturally appropriate rewards and non-abusive sanctions to shape children's behavior without stunting their academic and emotional development. Persuading parents to adopt such approaches may need programs that focus not just on techniques but also on attitudes, e.g. challenging the commonly held belief that children will not develop properly unless they are beaten when they do wrong.     

The use of corporal punishment in child rearing in the West Indies

The West Indian child is usually loved by its parents or caretakers, but is frequently subjected to corporal punishment unsuitable to the age and stage of its development and excessive in relation to the alleged offence. The debate on whether the persistent use of what is considered excessive punishment as the means of instilling obedience in children, centres around the parents' African heritage or learned behaviour from the institution of slavery. Socially and economically disadvantaged parents under stress seem to displace their frustrations and anxieties on the children through corporal punishment which often assumes ritualised characteristics. The community in general and the parents in particular need help through appropriate education, to change their attitudes of accepting excessive corporal punishment as the means of imposing discipline upon children.     

"I've tried the switch but he laughs through the tears:" the use and conceptualization of corporal punishment during the Machine Age, 1924-1939

OBJECTIVE: To examine attitudes, conflicts, images, circumstances, and time-period effects associated with corporal punishment and other forms of adult-to-child violence during the early 20th century in the United States. METHOD: A sample of 147 letters, referencing corporal punishment and dating from 1924 to 1939, were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The letters were addressed to Angelo Patri (1876-1965), a popular child-rearing expert during the interwar years (also known as the Machine Age), and written primarily by middle class parents with everyday worries about child rearing and proper discipline. RESULTS: People who sought advice emphasized the practical significance of corporal punishment over and above the idea that it violated children's rights to be protected against harm. One in four letters cited conflicts with significant others about corporal punishment. Generally, children were perceived as frail, defiant, or feral. Rarely, were they seen as devilish or, conversely, innocent. Children's disobedience and disrespect were cited more than other misbehaviors as reasons for corporal punishment. Age and gender of the focal child varied by time period when letters from the 1920s and 1930s were compared. CONCLUSIONS: A full understanding of parent-to-child violence cannot be achieved without a firm grasp of its genealogy. The growing popularity of child psychology during the Machine Age had a measurable impact on how children were viewed. A utilitarian frame of interpretation was an important part of the everyday "work" associated with child rearing during this time, foreshadowing the tendency today to emphasize efficacy more than rights when evaluating the legitimacy of corporal punishment.     

The factors of child physical abuse in Korean immigrant families

OBJECTIVE: This study explores Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse based on an ecological perspective. METHOD: One hundred and forty-four Korean immigrant mothers who came to the US after age 16 and have at least one child under 18 years old participated in this study. Data were collected using instruments translated in Korean that measure mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse in four areas: degree of agreement with physical abuse, conflict tactics, belief in the use of physical punishment, and perceptions regarding physical abuse. RESULTS: This study found that the following variables affect Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse at ecological levels of the environment: amount of time spent with children, experience of corporal punishment as a child, children's gender and age, family acculturation conflicts, mothers' age, and length of time in US at the micro level; involvement in their children's school and involvement in social organizations at the meso level; level of education and reported stress of immigrant life at the exo level; value of children in Korean culture, familiarity with Child Protective Services (CPS), perceived discrimination, and value of corporal punishment at the macro level. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests the importance of cultural sensitivity in social work practice when working with Korean immigrants. It also implies that intervention and prevention efforts of child abuse should be targeted at more than one level of the environment.     

A brief intervention affects parents’ attitudes toward using less physical punishment

Consecutive English and Spanish speaking caregivers of 6–24 month old children were randomly assigned to either a control or intervention group. Parents in the intervention group were instructed to view at least 4 options to discipline a child in an interactive multimedia program. The control group participants received routine primary care with their resident physician. After the clinic visit, all parents were invited to participate in a research study; the participation rate was 98% (258/263). The key measure was the Attitudes Toward Spanking (ATS) scale. The ATS is correlated with parents’ actual use of physical punishment. Parents with higher scores are more likely to use physical punishment to discipline their children. Parents in the intervention group had an ATS score that was significantly lower than the ATS score of parents in the control group (median = 24.0, vs. median = 30; p = 0.043). Parents in the control group were 2 times more likely to report that they would spank a child who was misbehaving compared with parents in the intervention group (16.9% vs. 7.0%, p = 0.015). In the short-term, a brief intervention, integrated into the primary care visit, can affect parents’ attitudes toward using less physical punishment. It may be feasible to teach parents to not use physical punishment using a population-based approach. The findings have implications for how to improve primary care services and the prevention of violence.     

Relationships among parental beliefs in corporal punishment, reported stress, and physical child abuse potential.

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined the extent to which parental belief in the value of corporal punishment moderates the association between level of parenting stress and physical child abuse potential. Based on existing theory, it was expected that levels of parenting stress would be positively associated with physical child abuse potential among parents who reported high levels of belief in the value of corporal punishment. METHOD: Forty-one parents (25 general population and 16 at-risk parents) were assessed for belief in the value of corporal punishment, level of parenting stress, and physical child abuse potential using self-report measures. After removal of respondents due to response distortion or missing data, the final sample consisted of 31 parents with valid and complete protocols. Based on their responses on the study measures, respondents were categorized as either high or low on belief in corporal punishment and parenting stress. RESULTS: Level of parenting stress was positively associated with physical child abuse potential. As expected, the interaction of parenting stress and belief in the value of corporal punishment was significant. Level of parenting stress was positively associated with physical child abuse potential among parents who reported high levels of belief in the value of corporal punishment. In contrast, level of parenting stress was not associated with physical child abuse potential among parents who reported low belief in the value of corporal punishment. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings are consistent social information processing and stress and coping models of the etiology of physical child abuse, and underscore the importance of considering both parental cognitions and levels of parenting stress in assessing potential for physical child abuse.     

Corporal punishment and primary prevention of physical abuse

OBJECTIVE: To bring to the attention child maltreatment professionals the potential for primary prevention of physical abuse of ending or reducing corporal punishment by parents. METHOD: The October 1999 special issue of Child Abuse & Neglect on "A National Call to Action: Working Toward the Elimination of Child Maltreatment" was reviewed in relation to coverage of corporal punishment by parents. RESULTS: Corporal punishment was not mentioned in any of the nine articles. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of research showing that corporal punishment is a major risk factor for physical abuse and research showing the wide prevalence and chronicity of corporal punishment suggests that the "National Call For Action" should include steps to end use of corporal punishment as a mode of discipline.     

A look at corporal punishment and some implications of its use

The author notes several legal, social, philosophical and educational attitudes common to Canada and the United States which have, for centuries, characterized the uses of corporal punishment with children. Specifically, corporal punishment is viewed as a technique for developing discipline within the school system. Inconsistencies in both Canada and the U.S. are noted regarding court decisions and their application in the classroom. Recent revisions to The Ontario Child Welfare Act are discussed in light of its implications for parents and teachers who physically punish their children or students. Research findings related to corporal punishment and their implications for schools are cited. Negative side-effects of administering punishment are also described. The evidence suggests that corporal punishment besides being an ineffective learning technique, is not the uncomplicated, quick solution many may think it. The author concludes by proposing that because of their important role in the lives of developing children and considering the resources devoted to teacher training, teachers should be held as legally accountable for their use of corporal punishment with children as parents are. As well, he indicates the need for (1) increased teacher training in the areas of child management, classroom management and interactional processes; (2) greater opportunity to devise creative problem-solving strategies; and (3) a re-ordering of priorities at universities, colleges and faculties of education which would benefit not only teachers, but ultimately their students.     

Parental self-confidence, parenting styles, and corporal punishment in families of ADHD children in Iran

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the relationship between parental self-confidence, warmth, and involvement, and corporal punishment in families of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHOD: The diagnosis of ADHD was established through clinical interviews with the parents, children, and teachers, according the criteria in DSM-IV-TR. This diagnosis was also established by having the parents complete the Conners' Parent Rating Scale, and the teachers complete the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale. Two groups of Iranian parents, one group with children who have ADHD (N=130) and a control group (N=120), completed questionnaires measuring parental self-confidence and parenting styles. RESULTS: Parents of children with ADHD were found to have lower self-confidence and less warmth and involvement with their children, and used corporal punishment significantly more than the parents of control children. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides strong evidence that children with ADHD are at considerable risk of abuse by their parents. Rather than focusing only on the child's ADHD, treatment may also need to address the parents' functioning.     

Can family structure and social support reduce the impact of child victimization on health-related quality of life?

This study aims at providing a profile of the association between different types of child victimization and polyvictimization and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among school-aged children, and examining the impact of family structure and social support on the negative health consequences associated with violent victimization. We conducted a cross-sectional school survey in Hong Kong using a two-stage stratified sampling procedure. The final sample comprised 4139 children’s self-reports and proxy-reports (boys = 51.5%; mean age = 6.3). The main outcome was HRQoL measured with the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL). Family structure was represented by parents’ marital status, major caregivers, number of siblings and the living arrangement of children. Child victimization, social support, and demographic characteristics were also measured. All types of child victimization were associated with compromised HRQoL, and the strength of association varied across different types of child victimization. Family structure (in particular the number of siblings and whether additional childcare was received from grandparents) and social support were associated with better HRQoL. The negative associations between child victimization and polyvictimization and HRQoL were reduced when there was an adjustment made for family structure and social support. Findings show that family structure and social support are related to a reduction in negative health consequences for child victimization. The varying strengths of negative associations between victimization and HRQoL highlight the possibility that the effects of child victimization on health might not be homogeneous.