Familial patterns of learning disabilities

Extended families of 12 young adults (9 LD, 3 non-LD) were given a battery of tests and questionnaires, and 131 persons, ranging in age from 6 to 85, were classified as LD or non-LD on the basis of subtest scores 1 SD below the mean or less on subtests of the PIAT and WRAT achievement tests. Pedigree analysis indicated that LD was strongly familial, with the most probable mode involving a major gene effect, but the type of disability (reading/ math) was not directly inherited. Autoimmune disorders were significantly correlated (P<.005) with LD, especially in families in which LD remained a major handicap into adulthood, a trait that also varied between families. In two of the LD families, adults showed little evidence of the reading/spelling deficits they had shown when tested as children, while adults in other families failed to make gains in reading and spelling.     

Special disability in spelling

Summary Selective disability in spelling usually accompanies the reading disability. It may however exist as an isolated defect. Inconstancy of recall of visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic engrams probably interferes with the establishment of the fixed associations needed for correct spelling. Faulty spelling like other expressions of a language defect is found in certain families in association with left handedness, reading disability, and speech disorders and is considered to be the result of variations in the establishment of unilateral cerebral dominance.     

Stress levels and attitudes of normal siblings of children with disabilities

This study examines the effects on normal children of the presence in the family of siblings with disabilities, attempting to measure both their level of stress and attitudes towards disability. The stress level and attitudes towards disability of normal siblings of children with disabilities (SCD) and siblings of normal children (SNC) were compared in terms of gender, family size and educational level. The stress level was measured by Holroyd's Questionnaire on Resources and Stress; attitudes towards disability were examined by Attitudes Towards Disabled Person Scale. 60 subjects participated in this study; 30 of them were SCD and 30 of them were SNC. t-test was used for data analysis. Results revealed a significant difference between the stress level of SCD and SNC. However, no significant difference was found between two sibling groups' attitudes towards disability. Also, gender, family size and educational level showed no significant difference either on the stress level of both sibling groups nor on their attitudes towards disability.This study is based on the master thesis of the first author.     

Tourette syndrome and learning disabilities.

We reviewed the records of 42 consecutive cases of children with Tourette Syndrome (TS) who had IQs above 70, and contrasted the reading, reading comprehension, math, and spelling quotients with IQ scores to determine how many would meet criteria for a learning disability. The mean IQ of the 35 males and 7 females was 94.4 and was higher than the mean math score (82.8), spelling score (90.4), reading score (87.4), and reading comprehension score (85.3). Using a 1.5 standard deviation discrepancy, 51% met criteria for learning disability in at least one academic area; 21% had a 2-standard-deviation discrepancy. Children with TS frequently have learning disabilities, and assessment of academic achievement should be a routine aspect in the evaluation of such children.     

Family history,self‐perceptions,attitudes and cognitive abilities are associated with early adolescent reading skills

This study evaluated a model of reading skills among early adolescents (N=174). Measures of family history, achievement, cognitive processes and self‐perceptions of abilities were obtained. Significant relationships were found between family history and children's single‐word reading skills, spelling, reading comprehension, orthographic processing and children's perceived reading competence. While children with poor reading skills were five times more likely to come from a family with a history of reading difficulties, this measure did not account for additional variance in reading performance after other variables were included. Phonological, orthographic, rapid sequencing and children's perceived reading competence made significant independent contributions towards reading and spelling outcomes. Reading comprehension was explained by orthographic processing, nonverbal ability, children's attitudes towards reading and word identification. Thus, knowledge of family history and children's attitudes and perceptions towards reading provides important additional information when evaluating reading skills among a normative sample of early adolescents.     

The association between academic self‐beliefs and reading achievement among children at risk of reading failure

This paper investigates whether children's academic self‐beliefs are associated with reading achievement and whether the relationship is modified by gender and/or age. Data were collected from children at risk of reading failure, that is, emergent readers (6‐ to 8‐year‐olds) in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas reading at a level below the population mean. The authors' own measure of attitude to reading and perceived competence was used. The study found a significant positive association between attitude to reading in class and vocabulary and phonemic awareness and a significant negative association between perceived competence at reading in class and single‐word reading and spelling. Girls' attitude to reading and perceived competence were more positively associated with reading achievement, and this was most evident in the first grade. Perceived competence was inflated among those with the poorest reading and also among boys, in association with reading‐related skills found most challenging by children in this sample.     

Stimulating basic reading processes using auditory discrimination in depth

Recent research indicates that a major cause of reading (decoding) disabilities lies in an inability to manipulate speech at its phonemic (phonological) level. The Auditory Discrimination in Depth Program (ADD Program), stimulates basic phonological awareness and has been used extensively at The Reading Foundation in Calgary, Alberta. Here we present pre- and post-test data from 281 clients (ranging from school-age through adulthood) seen over a two-year period; post-test data was collected after 80 hours of ADD instruction. To assess whether significant gains had been achieved, an analysis of covariance was performed, covarying for age and initial vocabulary scores. After 80 hours of intensive instruction, highly significant gains (p<.001) were evident on measures of phonological awareness, sound/symbol connections, word identification, spelling, and decoding in context. In addition to the treatment effect, age and vocabulary had some influence on some of the variables. The data was also analyzed to determine whether the results went beyond a “group effect” only. A total of 229 cases were tabulated for gains or losses on the word attack subtest and on the reading and spelling subtests of the WRAT-R. Results indicate that the remediation was effective for all subjects, though gains on spelling tended to be less than on the two reading scores.     

Identifying sex differences in reading disability

The issue of sex differences in reading disability has been of recent interest in relation to sex ratios in families with reading disabled children and to possible sex biases in referred populations. Data from a study of 570 twins are used to develop alternative definitions of reading disability that vary in the manner to which sex effects are taken into account. These definitions include discrepancies between reading quotients and IQ, the use of the regression of reading onto IQ and chronological age/reading age differences. In each case the reading and spelling disability was defined either separately for the sexes or based upon the data for the sexes combined and with and without an IQ>90 exclusion criterion. The consequences of using the alternative definitions for prevalence, sex ratio and heritability are examined. The results demonstrate that the characteristics of reading disabled children vary with the way disability is defined. The excess of males seems to be a robust finding. Definitions that take into account differences in mean score for males and females reduce but do not eradicate the sex ratio. From the genetic analysis, there is no support for the suggestion that the genetic effect on reading is greater for females than males. It is concluded that the use of regression based procedures for identifying reading disability is desirable but that at present there is insufficient evidence to justify the adoption of separate regression procedures for the two sexes.     

Changes in self-concept and academic skills during a multimodal summer camp program

The impact of a six-week multimodal summer camp program on the self-concept and reading/writing skills of a group of dyslexic students (n=42) was assessed. Campers ranged in age from 9 to 14 years (mean=11 years, 5 months) and came from public, private, and specialized private schools serving students with learning disability (LD). Twenty-six percent of the sample had a comorbid diagnoses of attention deficit disorder (ADD) and 11 percent had attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Campers improved significantly in phonetic reading and spelling skills, but not in sight word vocabulary or reading speed. Campers also exhibited significant improvements in self-concept, both on a general level and in the specific areas of reading and overall academic competence. The kinds of changes observed on the more general measures of self-concept, however, were not the same for the various groups of campers. Campers from regular private schools and from public schools typically experienced greater gains in general self-concept than did campers from LD private schools. Campers with diagnosed comorbid disorders typically realized little or no gains, whereas campers without ADD or ADHD displayed significant improvement in general self-concept.     

Cognitive and academic skills in children with sex chromosome abnormalities

Forty-six unselected children with various sex chromosome abnormalities (14 boys with 47,XXY, 4 boys with 47,XYY, 11 girls with 47,XXX, 9 girls with 45,X, and 8 girls with SCA mosaicism), identified through the consecutive chromosome screening of 40,000 Denver newborns, have been followed developmentally and evaluated in a protocol that included intellectual, language, and achievement testing. Controls consisted of 12 chromosomally normal males and 13 chromosomally normal females who were siblings of various propositi. While most SCA children were not mentally retarded, most of the nonmosaic propositi (31/37) received special education help for learning problems. In general, nonmosaic males were less severely affected than nonmosaic females, who demonstrated significantly reduced mean IQ scores on both Wechsler IQ tests. The inference that learning disorders were genetically mediated in this group was further supported by karyotype-specific findings. 47,XXY boys tended to demonstrate lower verbal skills and a specific reading disability. 47,XXX girls, while more globally impaired, demonstrated evidence of a specific weakness in language skills. 45,X girls tended to be globally impaired, but demonstrated a contrasting specific deficit in spatial thinking skills. Mosaic girls were not significantly different than controls on any measure, an outcome likely occurring because of the low percentage of aneuploid cells in these propositae. Variability was present in each group, and no single profile can characterize all children with any specific SCA. The presence of SCA, therefore, must be viewed as a risk factor creating a tendency towards LD but interacting with a host of other genetic and environmental forces to create a range of phenotypic outcomes.     

Word Recognition and the Nature of Reading Difficulty in Children with An Intellectual Disability: A Review

IT HAS OFTEN been assumed that, given appropriate instruction, children with intellectual disability can reach a level of achievement in reading commensurate with their level of mental development. This paper reviews evidence to the contrary, with particular reference to the skills required for word recognition. Similarities between specific reading disability and reading difficulty in children of low intelligence are noted, especially in deficits in short‐term memory. Much of the research with children with an intellectual disability has focussed on the teaching of sight‐word recognition; however, studies of decoding skills indicate that ability to acquire and use a knowledge of spelling patterns is a major problem underlying difficulty in independent word recognition by these children. Efforts to teach these children more efficient decoding skills have met with only limited success.     

Distinctive patterns of relationship of phonological awareness and working memory with reading development

The purpose of this study was to assess the contributions of specific components of verbal and nonverbal working memory and of phonological awareness to the prediction of reading achievement. One hundred and three children from grades 1, 2, and 3 were administered a measure of phonological awareness, four measures of working memory, four measures of academic achievement, and a measure of verbal intelligence. Separate multiple regression analyses controlling for the effects of age, sex and verbal intelligence showed that tests of verbal memory and of direct recall significantly predicted reading and spelling achievement whereas tests of backward recall significantly predicted only pseudoword identification. Phonological awareness was also found to relate significantly to reading and spelling achievement even when working memory was partialled out. Thus, phonological awareness and measures of working memory predicted specific and significant amounts of variance in reading and spelling achievement. Further, none of these measures were specifically related to arithmetic achievement. The specific roles of phonological awareness and working memory in reading development are examined in the discussion.     

Core deficits and variable differences in Dutch poor readers learning English

To examine phonological core deficits and variable orthographic competence, Dutch poor readers were investigated as they began instruction in reading in English (at about 14 years of age). A subgroup of poor readers with good orthographic competence in English (Poor/Good) and a subgroup with poor orthographic competence in English (Poor/Poor) were identified. Verbal and reading tasks in Dutch and English were assessed twice within a 10-month interval, and the scores of the two measurements were combined to gain stability. For both subgroups, we found indications that phonological core deficits and variable differences in orthographic competence transferred across the two languages. However, the Poor/Good subgroup did not show the weaknesses in serial rapid naming and semantic fluency of the Poor/Poor subgroup in both languages. Moreover, the Poor/Good readers were relatively good in reading skills and verbal learning in English. They had a specific reading disability at the phonemic level but also had compensatory skills at the level of syllables and words that help them to acquire English as second language. In contrast, the Poor/Poor subgroup had a more general reading disability, most prominently present in L2. The results are discussed in terms of orthographic differences between Dutch and English, the phonological-core variable-differences model, and "subtypes" of dyslexia.     

Follow-up of children with early expressive phonology disorders

Fifty-two children identified at age 4 to 6 years as demonstrating a moderate to severe expressive phonology disorder were followed to the third and fourth grades. Children were classified into two groups based on the presence of an early phonology disorder in isolation (P) or the presence of a phonology disorder with other language problems (PL). At follow-up, articulation measures failed to differentiate the groups; however, the PL group performed more poorly than the P group on measures of phoneme awareness, language, reading decoding, reading comprehension, and spelling. The P group demonstrated poor spelling skills relative to their reading and language abilities, suggesting residual spelling weaknesses in these children. The PL group reported more nuclear family members with speech-language disorders and with reading disorders than the P group. Findings support previous research linking early language disorders with later reading difficulties.     

Effects of tutoring in phonological and early reading skills on students at risk for reading disabilities

This study examined the effectiveness of nonprofessional tutors in a phonologically based reading treatment similar to those in which successful reading outcomes have been demonstrated. Participants were 23 first graders at risk for learning disability who received intensive one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. At year end, tutored students significantly outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. Effect sizes ranged from .42 to 1.24. Treatment effects diminished at follow-up at the end of second grade, although tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling. Findings suggest that phonologically based reading instruction for first graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by nonteacher tutors. Our discussion addresses the character of reading outcomes associated with tutoring, individual differences in response to treatment, and the infrastructure required for nonprofessional tutoring programs.     

Perceptions of typically developing children in India about their siblings with disabilities

ABSTRACT

In India, people with disabilities often struggle to access various opportunities and resources. As a result of perceptions within the Indian culture around disabilities, families may face social, financial, and emotional difficulties. Within the family, a child with a disability may lead to strained relationships, particularly with siblings. Often siblings have little knowledge about disabilities and may feel ostracised. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the knowledge and attitudes of 12 Indian children regarding their siblings with disabilities, including their perceptions about disabilities against the backdrop of societal attitudes. Participants were interviewed to understand their knowledge of their siblings’ disabilities, to examine their sibling relationships, and to assess how school and society influenced their perceptions about disabilities. Results from this study can help family members understand how disability shapes relationships between children. The findings also provide key stakeholders with information that might help them better support families.     

The Reading–Spelling Connection: Developing and Evaluating a Beginning Spelling Intervention for Children at Risk of Reading Disability

Abstract In this article, we describe the development and evaluation of a beginning spelling intervention for young children at risk of reading disability. We first summarize the literature that supports beginning spelling as an ideal method for strategically integrating the beginning reading big ideas of phonemic awareness and alphabetic understanding. We then summarize the literature on effective instructional principles for students at risk of reading disability. Next, we describe how instructional design was applied to the development of an intervention for young children at risk of reading disability, then summarize the findings of an experimental study supporting the effectiveness of this intervention. Finally, we provide selected examples from the spelling intervention to illustrate the findings' translation into instructional practice.     

Early phonological and lexical markers of reading disabilities

Phonological and lexical characteristics of 30-month-old children’s spontaneous language samples were examined as indicators of later reading outcome. Participants were 27 children, 10 children with reading disability and 17 children without reading disability. Of the non-disabled readers, 7 were at high familial risk for reading disability, and 10 came from families with no history of reading difficulties. Children later identified as reading disabled at second grade and beyond demonstrated narrower lexical diversity and simpler phonological forms as compared to the normal reading participants. Implications of reduced phonological complexity in the productive lexicons of reading disabled children are discussed.     

The Relationship of Spelling Recognition, RAN, and Phonological Awareness to Reading Skills in Older Poor Readers and Younger Reading-Matched Controls

The role of spelling recognition was examined in word reading skills and reading comprehension for dyslexic and nondyslexic children. Dyslexic and nondyslexic children were matched on their raw word reading proficiency. Relationships between spelling recognition and the following were examined for both groups of children: verbal ability, working memory, phonological measures, rapid naming, word reading, and reading comprehension. Children’s performance in spelling recognition was significantly associated with their skills in word reading and reading comprehension regardless of their reading disability status. Furthermore, spelling recognition contributed significant variance to reading comprehension for both dyslexic and nondyslexic children after the effects of phonological awareness, rapid naming, and word reading proficiency had been accounted for. The results support the role of spelling recognition in reading development for both groups of children and they are discussed using a componential reading fluency framework.