Conceptual change using multiple interpretive perspectives: Two case studies in secondary school chemistry

Conceptual change is predominantlydescribed as a rational process; however, researchersare beginning to explore alternative explanations forwhy some students learn but others given the sameopportunities do not. New perspectives include socialand motivational factors, ontological issues,modelling ability, intellectual development and thequestion of whether conceptual change is revolutionaryor evolutionary. This paper argues that conceptualchange is best understood when multiple perspectivesare used to interpret chemistry learning. Case studiesof two apparently similar students are used to showthat personal factors and differing interests andpurposes for studying science can significantlyinfluence learning outcomes. The case studies supportan argument that high scores on achievement tests areunreliable indicators of conceptual learning andrecommend that teachers and researchers pay moreattention to qualitative indicators of learning suchas students' conceptual status, modelling level andintellectual position. The findings suggest thatteachers and curriculum developers should take intoaccount the qualitative differences that studies suchas this identify.     

Intuition and insight: two concepts that illuminate the tacit in science education

Tacit knowledge, that is knowledge not expressible in words, may play a role in learning science, yet it is difficult to study directly. Intuition and insight, two processes that link the tacit and the explicit, are proposed as a route to investigating tacit knowledge. Intuitions are defined as tacit hunches or feelings that influence thought with little conscious effort. This paper examines conceptualisations of intuition as embodied cognition, and as abstracted rules before examining reports of intuition in the work of scientists and in science education. Insight is described as an explicit awareness of novel relations between concepts that arrives with little conscious control. Insight is related to rapid conceptual change and the development of conceptual connections. Reports of insight in the work of scientists and in the science classroom are discussed. The manner in which insight and intuition may promote and hinder learning is considered and conditions that affect the use of both processes are suggested. Strategies that might encourage students’ use of intuition and insight in the classroom are proposed. The paper concludes with a call for a greater focus on the concept of tacit knowledge in science education and suggests areas for future research.     

A Macro–Micro–Symbolic Teaching to Promote Relational Understanding of Chemical Reactions

The purpose of this research is threefold: (1) to identify the difficulties that Grade 10 students in a Lebanese school have that hinder their conceptual understanding at the micro–macro–symbolic interface in chemistry, (2) to investigate the effect of a macro–micro–symbolic teaching approach on students’ relational understanding of chemical reactions, and (3) to characterize students’ conceptual profiles regarding their understanding of chemical reactions in terms of macro, micro, symbolic levels and the relations among them, at the end of the teaching sequence. Forty six 10th graders from two sections participated in the study. A student-centered approach was followed in both sections based on constructivist pedagogy. Hence the teacher played the role of a facilitator who guided students in a meaning making inductive learning process, through questioning, monitoring, validating, and clarifying ideas. Instruction in the experimental group was characterized by macro–micro–symbolic teaching that focuses on the interplay between the levels, integrates various representations, and engages students in an epistemic discourse about the nature of knowing in chemistry. Data sources for the study included a pre-test and two post-intervention tasks: a post-test and a concept map task, in addition to interviews with selected students from both sections. Findings indicated that macro–micro–symbolic teaching enhanced students’ conceptual understanding and relational learning of chemical reactions. Besides, four assertions related to students’ conceptual and epistemological thinking in response to the different teaching approaches are presented. Implications for instruction and for teacher education programs, as well as recommendations for further research, are discussed in light of these findings.     

Connected Chemistry—Incorporating Interactive Simulations into the Chemistry Classroom

The aim of this paper is to describe a novel modeling and simulation package, connected chemistry, and assess its impact on students' understanding of chemistry. Connected chemistry was implemented inside the NetLogo modeling environment. Its design goal is to present a variety of chemistry concepts from the perspective of emergent phenomena—that is, how macro-level patterns in chemistry result from the interactions of many molecules on a submicro-level. The connected chemistry modeling environment provides students with the opportunity to observe and explore these interactions in a simulated environment that enables them to develop a deeper understanding of chemistry concepts and processes in both the classroom and laboratory. Here, we present the conceptual foundations of instruction using connected chemistry and the results of a small study that explored its potential benefits. A three-part, 90-min interview was administered to six undergraduate science majors regarding the concept of chemical equilibrium. Several commonly reported misconceptions about chemical equilibrium arose during the interview. Prior to their interaction with connected chemistry, students relied on memorized facts to explain chemical equilibrium and rigid procedures to solve chemical equilibrium problems. Using connected chemistry students employed problem-solving techniques characterized by stronger attempts at conceptual understanding and logical reasoning.     

Model of affective learning for nonformal science education facilities

Objective setting and evaluation for learning in the affective domain are often neglected in educational programs, largely because affective learning is a poorly understood phenomenon. This is particularly problematic in nonformal science education facilities, which are uniquely suited to facilitate affective learning. To address this problem, a heuristic model of affective learning in nonformal educational facilities was developed. The model, referred to as the Meredith Model, displays a sequence of events occurring in the affective responses of learners in nonformal educational experiences and identifies factors which may influence individual events within this sequence. The model is proposed as a conceptual framework for gaining an increased understanding of affective learning and for making recommendations for practice of nonformal science education and for further research. J Res Sci Teach 34: 805–818, 1997.     

Effects of Combined Hands-on Laboratory and Computer Modeling on Student Learning of Gas Laws: A Quasi-Experimental Study

Based on current theories of chemistry learning, this study intends to test a hypothesis that computer modeling enhanced hands-on chemistry laboratories are more effective than hands-on laboratories or computer modeling laboratories alone in facilitating high school students' understanding of chemistry concepts. Thirty-three high school chemistry students from a private all-girl high school in northeastern United States were divided into two groups to participate in a quasi-experimental study. Each group completed a particular sequence of computer modeling and hands-on laboratories plus pre-test and post-tests of conceptual understanding of gas laws. Each group also completed a survey of conceptions of scientific models. Non-parametric tests, i.e. Friedman's one-way analysis of ranks and Wilcoxon's signed ranks test, showed that the combined computer modeling and hands-on laboratories were more effective than either computer simulations or hands-on laboratory alone in promoting students' conceptual understanding of the gas law on the relationship between temperature and pressure. It was also found that student conception of scientific models as replicas is statistically significantly correlated with students' conceptual understanding of the particulate model of gases. The findings mentioned earlier support the recent call for model-based science teaching and learning in chemistry.     

Primary pre-service teachers' pedagogical reasoning skills

This paper discusses a preliminary investigation into primary pre-service teachers' pedagogical reasoning skills. Results from this investigation led to the development of a problem-based learning model which focused on improving primary pre-service teachers' pedagogical reasoning skills. The problem-based learning model uses pedagogical reasoning as the basis for creating problem situations for the pre-service teachers to investigate. The paper reports on pre-service teachers' views on the use of the approach to improve their pedagogical reasoning skills. Specializations: science teacher education, learning in science, chemistry education. Specializations: student learning, conceptual change, technology education, curriculum evaluation.     

Understanding and Enhancing the Use of Multiple External Representations in Chemistry Education

Theories on learning with Multiple External Representations (MER) claim that low prior knowledge learners in science have difficulties using MER, which are seen as necessary to achieve a conceptual understanding. In two experiments, we analyze the mechanisms underlying the learning of chemistry with MER. Our first experiment focuses on how MER can support learning. We found no difference in learning gains of conceptual understanding, regardless of the format (whether MER were provided or not). It is concluded that chemical MER on themself cannot be seen as learning aids. The second experiment compares three types of instructional aids (prompts, prompts with an answer, and note-taking) to determine which types of aids enhance learning with MER. Contrary to the findings of Seufert (Learn Instr 13:227?C237, 2003), path-analysis suggests that the lowest prior knowledge group benefits the most from instructional aids such as prompts and note-taking. These aids guide learners?? attention towards one specific representational format (symbols), while other formats (submicroscopic representations) receive less attention.     

Student absences during learning cycle phases: a technological alternative for make-up work in laboratory based high school chemistry

Absences from school present a major obstacle to students' gaining understandings of concepts developed in class. Moreover, teachers' finding effective ways for students to make up missed work is a continual problem, especially for laboratory-based science classes. In an exploratory study, we investigated an alternative procedure for making up missed class work: viewing a quasi-interactive videotaped presentation of missed portions of a learning cycle in chemistry. Two treatment groups were involved. One group of students completed data sheets while watching a videotape, then wrote answers to questions posed by the videotaped instructor. This procedure simulated make-up work. A second group of students participated in a conventional learning cycle: exploration, conceptual invention and concept application. Results demonstrate that teachers can videotape investigations to conveniently and effectively use as make-up assignments for a chemistry learning cycle.     

Concepts of a higher hierarchical level require more dual situated learning events for conceptual change: A study of air pressure and buoyancy

This article examines the process of students' conceptual changes in respect of air pressure and buoyancy as a result of instructing with the Dual Situated Learning Model. The dual situated learning events of this model were designed according to the students' ontological viewpoint on the science concepts as well as on the nature of these concepts. Results demonstrated that the notion of buoyancy required more dual situated learning events for conceptual change to occur than that for air pressure. Instead of attributing the difficulty involved in conceptual change to the mismatch of ontological category of the concepts, the author proposes that the hierarchical level of the scientific concepts would determine how easy or difficult it is to bring out a conceptual change. Concepts of higher hierarchical level subsume more essential underlying concepts, thus making it more difficult for conceptual changes to occur.     

Argumentation as a Strategy for Conceptual Learning of Dynamics

Researchers have emphasized the importance of promoting argumentation in science classrooms for various reasons. However, the study of argumentation is still a young field and more research needs to be carried out on the tools and pedagogical strategies that can assist teachers and students in both the construction and evaluation of scientific arguments. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of argumentation on students’ conceptual learning in dynamics. True-experimental design using quantitative research methods was carried out for the study. The participants of the study were tenth graders studying in two classes in an urban all-girls school. There were 26 female students in each class. Five argumentations promoted in the different contexts were embedded through the dynamics unit over a 10-week duration. The study concludes that engaging in the argumentative process that involves making claims, using data to support these claims, warranting the claims with scientific evidence, and using backings, rebuttals, and qualifiers to further support the reasoning, reinforces students’ understanding of science, and promotes conceptual change. The results suggest that argumentation should be employed during instruction as a way to enable conceptual learning.     

Student Perceptions of Industrial Chemistry Classroom Learning Environments

This article describes a study conducted in Israel which focused on how learning industrial chemistry case studies affects students' perceptions of their classroom learning environment and their interest in chemistry studies. The goal of the study was to determine the effects of industrial case studies on students' perceptions of chemistry in general, and industrial chemistry in particular. Information on students' perceptions was gathered from a learning environment inventory specifically developed for this study. It was observed that industrial chemistry case studies helped in providing students with a relevant picture of chemistry in general and their chemistry studies in particular. It was also found that teachers who had attended an intensive training workshop were the most successful in presenting the relevance of chemistry in the case studies. These teachers also were more successful in raising students' awareness of the social implications of chemistry studies. Furthermore, their students had a better awareness of the contribution made by chemistry studies to their preparation as future citizens and for a possible career in chemistry. These findings have important implications for any decisions about whether to make industrial chemistry case studies obligatory for students who major in chemistry. There are further implications regarding the content and learning strategies to be used for the professional development of science teachers in general and chemistry teachers in particular. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Designing Authentic Learning Environments in Chemistry Lessons: Paving the Way in Pre-Service Teacher Education

Authenticity has recently become a popular term in science education. A study focusing on authenticity in the sense of making chemistry lessons better resemble chemistry practice is carried out at the University of Cologne in the Institute of Chemical Education, where prospective chemistry teachers are trained. In the long run an innovative module shall be developed, which challenges teacher students’ pre-conceptions about characteristics of chemistry practice and supports them in translating their conceptions into authentic learning environments. This paper presents the first part of the project in which course elements to stimulate reflection on students’ attitudes were evaluated. Moreover the students were given an opportunity for teacher students to create a practical activity for pupils in order to detect aspects in which the students need more support, for example possible ways for this transformation or more experience with inquiry-based learning.     

Customization of Curriculum Materials in Science: Motives, Challenges, and Opportunities

Exemplary science instructors use inquiry to tailor content to student’s learning needs; traditional textbooks treat science as a set of facts and a rigid curriculum. Publishers now allow instructors to compile pieces of published and/or self-authored text to make custom textbooks. This brings numerous advantages, including the ability to produce smaller, cheaper text and added flexibility on the teaching models used. Moreover, the internet allows instructors to decentralize textbooks through easy access to educational objects such as audiovisual simulations, individual textbook chapters, and scholarly research articles. However, these new opportunities bring with them new problems. With educational materials easy to access, manipulate and duplicate, it is necessary to define intellectual property boundaries, and the need to secure documents against unlawful copying and use is paramount. Engineers are developing and enhancing information embedding technologies, including steganography, cryptography, watermarking, and fingerprinting, to label and protect intellectual property. While these are showing their utility in securing information, hackers continue to find loop holes in these protection schemes, forcing engineers to constantly assess the algorithms to make them as secure as possible. As newer technologies rise, people still question whether custom publishing is desirable. Many instructors see the process as complex, costly, and substandard in comparison to using traditional text. Publishing companies are working to improve attitudes through advertising. What lacks is peer reviewed evidence showing that custom publishing improves learning. Studies exploring the effect of custom course materials on student attitude and learning outcomes are a necessary next step.     

The elementary level science methods course: Breeding ground of an apprehension toward science? a case study

Ethnographic research methodologies were used to examine the training of elementary education majors in science in an attempt to gain insight on whether or not their training in science contributes to the apprehension elementary teachers have toward science. The field study consisted of 14 weeks of weekly observations in the elementary education majors science methods class. Interviews with the students and the instructors as well as survey instruments to assess students' preparation in science were used. Two different approaches to the study of science, one content oriented, the other process oriented, may contribute to the students' confusion, insecurity, and avoidance of science. The students' perception that science is learning content, an objective of introductory level science courses, and the science methods class's objectives of teaching science as a process sets up an “antagonistic dilemma” between the two. Such “antagonistic dilemma” may be manifest in the lack of instructional time accorded to science by elementary educators. The type of science experiences an individual encounters influences their perceptions. To offset student perceptions developed in science courses which stress principally content, the students need science experiences which truly represent science as inquiry. New strategies for the training of elementary education majors in science need to be examined.     

Students’ Ideas about How and Why Chemical Reactions Happen: Mapping the conceptual landscape

Research in science education has revealed that many students struggle to understand chemical reactions. Improving teaching and learning about chemical processes demands that we develop a clearer understanding of student reasoning in this area and of how this reasoning evolves with training in the domain. Thus, we have carried out a qualitative study to explore students reasoning about chemical causality and mechanism. Study participants included individuals at different educational levels, from college to graduate school. We identified diverse conceptual modes expressed by students when engaged in the analysis of different types of reactions. Main findings indicate that student reasoning about chemical reactions is influenced by the nature of the process. More advanced students tended to express conceptual modes that were more normative and had more explanatory power, but major conceptual difficulties persisted in their reasoning. The results of our study are relevant to educators interested in conceptual development, learning progressions, and assessment.     

School Chemistry: The Need for Transgression

Studies of the philosophy of chemistry over the past 15 years suggest that chemistry is a hybrid science which mixes scientific pursuits with technological applications. Dominant universal characterizations of the nature of science thus fail to capture the essence of the discipline. The central goal of this position paper is to encourage reflection about the extent to which dominant views about quality science education based on universal views of scientific practices may constrain school chemistry. In particular, we discuss how these predominant ideas restrict the development of chemistry curricula and instructional approaches that may better support the learning of the ideas and practices that studies of the philosophy of chemistry suggest are at the core of the discipline. Our analysis suggests that philosophical studies about the nature of chemistry invite us to transgress traditional educational boundaries between science and technology, inquiry and design, content and process, and to reconceptualize school chemistry as a paradigmatic techno scientific subject. To support these changes, chemical education researchers should expand the scope of their investigations to better understand how students and teachers reason about and engage in more authentic ways of chemical thinking and doing.     

Relationships between High School Chemistry Students’ Perceptions of a Constructivist Learning Environment and their STEM Career Expectations

Considerable attention has been devoted to factors affecting the persistence of women and historically underrepresented ethnic groups in their science education trajectories. The literature has focused more on structural factors that affect longitudinal outcomes rather than classroom experiences. This exploratory survey study described relationships among high school chemistry students’ perceptions of a constructivist learning environment (CLE) and STEM career expectations. The sample included 693 students from 7 public high schools within the San Francisco Bay Area. Students’ perceptions of a CLE predicted their expectations of entering a science career, but not engineering, computer, health, or mathematics-related careers. When all groups of students perceived the learning environment as more constructivist, they were more likely to expect science careers.     

The Collaboration of Cooperative Learning and Conceptual Change: Enhancing the Students’ Understanding of Chemical Bonding Concepts

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cooperative learning based on conceptual change approach instruction on ninth-grade students’ understanding in chemical bonding concepts compared to traditional instruction. Seventy-two ninth-grade students from two intact chemistry classes taught by the same teacher in a public high school participated in the study. The classes were randomly assigned as the experimental and control group. The control group (N?=?35) was taught by traditional instruction while the experimental group (N?=?37) was taught cooperative learning based on conceptual change approach instruction. Chemical Bonding Concept Test (CBCT) was used as pre- and post-test to define students’ understanding of chemical bonding concepts. After treatment, students’ interviews were conducted to observe more information about their responses. Moreover, students from experimental groups were interviewed to obtain information about students’ perceptions on cooperative work experiences. The results from ANCOVA showed that cooperative learning based on conceptual change approach instruction led to better acquisition of scientific conceptions related to chemical bonding concepts than traditional instruction. Interview results demonstrated that the students in the experimental group had better understanding and fewer misconceptions in chemical bonding concepts than those in the control group. Moreover, interviews about treatment indicated that this treatment helped students’ learning and increased their learning motivation and their social skills.