Whitehead and a new look at teaching elementary science

If Whitehead is right, science teachers who try to increase student interest by making the science they teach more pure and by covering more material are going about their work in just the wrong way. Science, for purposes of precision in measurement, translates the dynamic world of feeling and force, of causal efficacy (for example, the San Francisco earthquake), into a static representation spatialized and given presentational immediacy (for example, the Richter scale). But notice that the Richter scale isn't very interesting (even as abstract art) apart from its connection, via symbolic reference, to the earthquake. Such reference is essential to give both a sense of reality and a feeling of interes to the subject, but it makes the science less pure, and it takes more time to cover the material. An example of teaching pure and impure formal logic is given as a case study.     

Higher education as a political issue area: A comparative view of France,Sweden and the United Kingdom

The common view in the literature on higher education in Western Europe is that the issue area has increasingly become enmeshed with national politics in recent decades. This article examines the extent to which this is true of France, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Six indicators of issueness, corresponding to important political actors/arenas, are used to identify temporal and cross-national patterns. It is argued that although it is evidently true that a politicization has occurred it may easily be overstated. Higher education remains a relatively minor concern in the national politics of the three countries. Only in exceptional circumstances, such as in France in 1968, is this pattern of subsystem politics replaced by a pattern of macropolitics. The analysis furthermore suggests the considerable variation in patterns of issueness which may exist between different national contexts.This article was written while the author was visiting with the Higher Education Research Group, Institution for Social and Policy Studies, Yale University. He is indebted to the members of the Group for their helpful comments on an earlier version.     

Critical thinking and the Spock Fallacy

Conventional instruction in critical thinking technique tends to conflate logical thinking with rational or good thinking. But in doing so, it ignores the creative and intuitive functions of rationality, thereby encouraging a mechanically rote approach to textual analysis, problem solving and problem construction. This overemphasis upon straightforwardly logical calculus of justification functions, and its concomitant deemphasis of intuitive pattern of discovery ones, constitute the Spock Fallacy. Its epistemological weakness and pedagogical hazards are explored.The author of two books and numerous articles, one of his specialties is philosophy of education and critical thinking.     

Beauty and Character: Values Beyond Beauty in Architecture

Formalist conceptions of aesthetic goals began to give way from the 17^th century on to rationalist accounts of experience. Beauty as described as essential by Renaissance thinkers was reconceived as just one possibility, with the sublime in Burke's account as another. In the early 20^th century Clive Bell again asserted a formalist position with his argument for significant form. The weakness of the formality position, and the need for a richer, more contextual account of aesthetic goals and experience is argued with reference to the idea of thick and thin concepts as applied by Bernard Williams to ethics, Wittgenstein's attention to the way in which language is used in a specific context, and Scruton's emphasis on an informed conception of the object of aesthetic attention. Beauty, in Alberti's procedural account if not in his version of the Platonic ideal, can be seen to continue to have critical value. The idea of character, however, offers a broader range of possibilities for experience and of goals for design.     

A Textbook Case of the Nature of Science: Laws and Theories in the Science of Biology

The two concepts law and theory are among the most important elements of the nature of science. They represent both the tools and products of science itself. Unfortunately, the variable meanings and use of these terms in general discourse and in other school disciplines results in much confusion with respect to their proper application in a science context. The project included the design of a six-part model definition for law and theory based on a review of the literature of the philosophy of science with special reference to biology. These model definitions were then compared with those provided in a range of U.S. secondary school biology textbooks. The majority of all current major U.S. secondary school biology texts were reviewed and analyzed with respect to how the concepts of law and theory were defined and applied, in an attempt to determine whether students and teachers using such texts would gain an accurate impression of these terms and the distinction between them. This study focuses on biology instruction since a life science course is completed as a graduation requirement by virtually all U.S. high school students and as such serves as a widely shared educational experience across the nation. The term law is rarely defined in any text but various laws such as those found in genetics are frequently included as examples. The term theory is frequently defined but with a wide range of completeness of the definitions. Only rarely are theories in biology included as examples.     

Three-dimensional art and sculpture

I am making it BIG (Evan). A secret slide with gold in there (Sydni). Look even a little car could fit in it (Joshua). This is a circle! Round, a tiger jumps through this hoop (Emily). Excitement runs high when children experiment with three-dimensional art projects using paper, boxes and styrofoam.Liz Seelhoff Byrum teaches four- and five-year-olds at a private school in New York City.     

Exploring the Concept of ‘Habitus’ with Preservice Teachers Through the Use of Popular School Films

The thesis of this paper is that it is a productive venture to introduce preservice students to social theories that are typically not a part of teacher preparation programs. Examples of these theories are those associated with terms such as habitus, the carnivalesque, power / knowledge, seduction, detournement, the spectacle,la perruque, (the wig), and the art of making do,as well as others. In this paper, I describe a project that involved exploring the theory of habitus to problematize the tendency of preservice students to not think in terms of relations between what goes on in the classroom and what goes on in society. I introduced habitus by having preservice students read selected print materials and by having them view, analyze, and respond in writing to popular school films. Students also analyzed their experiences in classrooms in terms of habitus, making a connection between theory and practice.     

Choosing competency-based,humanistic and self-directed programs: The contribution of personality and reasoning

Fifty-five college women enrolled in competency-based, humanistic or self-directed education programs completed their California Personality Inventory and listed five reasons for selecting their program. CPI results indicated that self-directed students scored lower than other students on the Femininity Scale (p.001). Using Chickering's seven vectors of change as a framework, the study found competency-based students identifying purpose and competence, humanistic students identifying inter-personal relationships and integrity, and self-directed student identifying autonomy and purpose as reasons for enrolling in their nontraditional programs. The study used these results to question the mythology that adherents to different programs are of different personality types and to argue that differences in perceptions of purpose in education distinguish students in the three programs.     

Visual processing during mathematical problem solving

This study investigated, in the context of mathematical problem solving by secondary school students, the nature of the visual schemata which Johnson (1987) hypothesises mediate between logical propositional structures and rich specific visual images. Four groups of grade 10 students were studied, representing all combinations of high and low operational ability in mathematics (equivalent to Johnson's logical propositional structures) and high and low vividness of visual imagery (corresponding to Johnson's rich images). The results suggested first, that success at problem solving was related to logical operational ability, but not to vividness of visual imagery. Second, a variety of visually based strategies were used during problem solving which differed in their level of generality and abstraction, and use of these strategies appeared related to either logical operational ability or vividness of visual imagery, depending on their level of abstraction. The results supported Presmeg's (1992b) continuum of abstraction of image schemata.Throughout the paper, the first High or Low denotes logical operational ability, and the second, vividness of visual imagery.     

Computers and the emancipation of students: giving control to the learner

The paper considers two basic models of the teaching-learning process, described as the didactic and the communication model. These are applied to Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) in order to demonstrate that CAL has generally embodied a didactic model of teaching and learning. This imposes an unnecessary restriction on the student's freedom to choose their (Note 1) learning style, and the paper discusses how it is possible for CAL to support a less didactic model and to give more control to the student.     

Frequency norms and structural analysis of algebra story problems into families,categories, and templates

The goal of this study was to develop a framework for classifying algebra story problems and to determine observed frequencies for each problem type. A total of 1097 algebra story problems were selected from ten standard algebra textbooks. These are divided into eight families based on the nature of the source formula involved; for example, nearly 300 problems were classified in the time rate family because they were based on the source formula, distance = rate x time or output = rate x time. Each family was divided into problem categories based on the general form of the story line; for example, the time rate family consisted of motion, current, and work categories. Each category was divided into templates based on the specific propositional structure of the problem; for example, there were a dozen templates for motion problems such as overtake, closure, round trip, etc. This article describes the procedure for generating families, categories, and templates and provides frequency counts for each observed template. Implications for fostering productive research and instruction are discussed.This research was supported by grant NIE-G-78-0162 from the National Institute of Education. Requests for reprints should be sent to: Richard E. Mayer, Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106.     

Error factors: A missing link between cognitive science and classroom practice?

Cognitive scientists are now able to model the errors of learners on simple, well-specified topics such as subtraction. Unfortunately, the associated techniques are too involved, and the analyses too fine-grained, for teachers to apply them to general classroom topics. Deficiencies are also apparent in current curriculum theories, which do not pay sufficient attention to the consequences of untreated errors. The most immediately usable and integrative approach of which I am aware is in terms of Error Factors (EFs)-promoters of underlying confusion in learning. I show here how this framework helps us understand the failure of classical attempts to arrange error-free learning or to provide diagnostic or remedial tests and exercises. Further, anecdotal evidence I present confirms that it is rare for teachers who are peripherally aware of such factors to deal systematically with them; more often, teachers are both ignorant of and unable to recognize typical error factors, whether in their teaching (itself commonly a source of confusion for students) or in their students' learning. Accordingly, this paper provides an overview of the more significant facets of EFs, together with such psychological explanations for their occurrences as exist. It is hoped that a fuller and more cogent appraisal of errors will be seen in classrooms as a result.     

Science, Society, and Technology—Three Cultures and Multiple Visions

The article reviews the strikingly divergent viewpoints of intellectuals—scientists and non-scientists—about Science and Technology. It shows that while scientists implicitly accept the difference between Science and Technology, to non-scientists that difference is irrelevant. The most important differences between Science and Technology that lie in their relative scales, outputs and accuracy of predictions are highlighted. The complexity of and difficulty in trying to quantify the contribution of science and technology to economic growth are discussed. Views of science and technology that include their societal perceptions are recommended.     

Using problem solving teaching styles to prepare candidates for the CXC basic proficiency examinations

Two Grade 10 classes in an urban Jamaican High School were taught over a period of one academic year in two problem solving styles: an Explicit Style derived from Charles, and an Implicit Style derived from Isaacs. At the end of the academic year there was no significant difference in their performance on a problem solving test, or on the Problem Solving Profile of the Caribbean Examinations Council's Basic Proficiency papers. The two classes performed much better than the population who sat the Basic papers on the tasks measuring Recall and Algorithmic Thinking but only moderately better than the population on tasks measuring Problem Solving.The teaching project described in this paper was supported in part by grants from the Research and Publications Fund Committee of the University of the West Indies (Mona), and the Wolmers Trust, Kingston. The author wishes to thank the Registrar and the Pro-Registrar of the Caribbean Examinations Council for permission to use the CXC papers and data in this study. A modified version of this paper was presented at the 63rd Annual Conference of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics held in San Antonio, Texas in 1985.     

Language factor: Does it affect children's performance on word problems?

48 children from primary 4 in private and public schools (24 from each) were asked to solve 10 arithmetic word problems (involving more or less as the cue word) presented in English and in their native language. Retrospective clinical interviews were also conducted to find out how each child analyzed the meaning of each problem, before deciding which operation to use to solve it. The results revealed that both public and private school children performed better both in skills and in strategies when problems were presented in their native language than when presented in English, but only public school had the result to be significant (P<.025). Also data obtained from the interviews are in accord with psycholinguistic theories concerning the polarized comparative pair of less and more.     

Sociological theory and the analysis of strategies of educational redress

In this paper, three sociological models or theoretical templates for the analysis of social order are outlined: (a) the order-consensus model, (b) the conflict model and (c) interactionist models. The paper then discusses how each model can be applied to what is here called educational redress. Special reference is made to those redress strategies addressed to pre-school-age children-strategies customarily termed Compensatory Education Programmes. The paper goes on to show how proponents of each model would approach the analysis of such programmes, and how proponents of each model would criticize the other models' analyses. It is shown that the three sociological models are located in, and formalizations of, commonsense conceptions of social structure tacitly held by lay members of society, and that even professional educators typically do not make their model of society very explicit. Finally the paper upholds the belief that the above elements constitute what sociologists can add to the understanding of educational redress strategies.

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Zusammenfassung In diesem Artikel werden drei soziologische Modelle oder theoretische Schablonen für die Analyse der Sozialstruktur umrissen: (a) das Struktur-Konsens-Modell, (b) das Konfliktmodell und (c) das Wechselwirkungsmodell in seinen verschiedenen Varianten. Dann wird untersucht, wie jedes dieser Modelle auf den Bildungsausgleich angewandt werden kann, insbesondere auf die Ausgleichsstrategien für Kinder im Vorschulalter, die gewöhnlich mit Kompensierende Erziehungsprogramme bezeichnet werden. Anschliessend wird beschrieben, wie Protagonisten jedes dieser Modelle diese Programme analysieren und wie sie mit Hilfe der anderen Modelle vorgenommene Analysen kritisieren würden. Weiterhin wird ausgeführt, dass die drei Modelle Formalisierungen der unter Laiengruppen verbreiteten Vorstellungen von der Gesellschaftsordnung darstellen, und dass selbst Pädagogen ihr Gesellschaftsmodell gewöhnlich nicht klar definieren. Zum Schluss spricht der Verfasser seine Ansicht aus, dass die Soziologie durch die obigen Elemente zum Verständnis der Bildungsausgleich-Strategien beitragen kann.

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Résumé Dans ce rapport sont décrits trois modèles sociologiques ou échantillons theoriques pour l'analyse de l'ordre social: (a) le modèle ordre-consensus, (b) le modèle conflit et (c) les modèles interactionnistes. Le rapport examine ensuite comment pouvoir appliquer chaque modèle à ce qu'on appelle ici redressement éducatif. Sont mentionnés particulièrement les stratégies de redressement que l'on adresse aux stratégies pour enfants d'âge préscolaire, appelées habituellement Programmes d'éducation compensatoire. Le rapport montre ensuite comment les défenseurs de chaque modèle aborderaient l'analyse de ces programmes, et comment ils critiqueraient les analyses des autres modèles. On montre que les trois modèles sociologiques sont situés dans — et sont en fait des formalisations — des conceptions courantes de structure sociale qu'ont tacitement les membres laïques de la société, et que même les éducateurs professionnels ne rendent typiquement pas leur modèle de la société très explicite. Enfin, l'auteur est convaincu que les éléments susmentionnés constituent ce que les sociologues peuvent ajouter à la compréhension des stratégies de redressement éducatif.

     

Introducing micro-computers to micro-learners through play

Computers, once available exclusively to wealthy industries, are now rapidly becoming as familiar in preschool and kindergarten classrooms as block and crayons. Articles making claims such as Learning by Computers at Age 4 and Computers Preparing Preschoolers for Kindergarten now permeate the news media. Increasing numbers of child care centers, attempting to maximize public interest in computers, now readily advertise Computer Tutor in their literature. Computer Tutor is often even listed above other important qualifications such as certified teachers and professional affiliations of centers.Theresa Rubens has had extensive experience working with children in both family day homes and child care centers. Jennifer Poole is the Nursery Director at the First United Methodist Church in Carrollton, TX. James L. Hoot is Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education at North Texas State University in Denton, Texas.     

Pictorial Illustrations Still Improve Students' Learning from Text

Research conducted primarily during the 1970s and 1980s supported the assertion that carefully constructed text illustrations generally enhance learners' performance on a variety of text-dependent cognitive outcomes. Research conducted throughout the 1990s still strongly supports that assertion. The more recent research has extended pictures-in-text conclusions to alternative media and technological formats and has begun to explore more systematically the whys, whens, and for whoms of picture facilitation, in addition to the whethers and how muchs. Consideration is given here to both more and less conventional types of textbook illustration, with several tenets for teachers provided in relation to each type.     

A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach: The DIT and Schema Theory

Macromorality concerns the formal structure of society, as defined by institutions, rules, and roles. Micromorality concerns the particular face-to-face relations that people have in everyday life. Kohlbergian theories are most useful for issues of macromorality. The Defining Issues Test (DIT) derives from Kohlberg's approach but makes several departures, including defining cognitive structures in terms of schemas instead of stages, reformulating the definition of postconventional moral thinking, and using different research strategies. The validity of the DIT is based on seven criteria (briefly discussed), and hundreds of studies have produced significant trends. Recent research derived from schema theory produces novel phenomena that link our theory of moral schemas more closely with information processing and decision making.     

The American mixture of higher education in perspective: four dimensions

Several nations are currently considering privatization of parts of their higher education systems. This paper, mainly based on the American experience, examines privatizing public institutions as an alternative to establishing solely private institutions.Institutions are analyzed along four dimensions: (1) ownership (public or private); (2) control (external or internal); (3) financing (public or private funds); and (4) mechanisms for public financing (who controls fund distribution and how). There are varying mixtures along these four dimensions both within countries and around the world, with the American system exhibiting the widest range of combinations. Six categories are described, including four common in the U.S.: I. Independent private, where institutions are independent in ownership, in control, and in basic financing; II. Dependent private, independent in ownership and financing but dependent in control; III. Independent public, dependent in ownership but independent in control and substantially independent in financing; IV. Semi-independent public (state/guild type), dependent in ownership, mixed in control, and heavily dependent in financing (less common in the U.S., but typical of Italy and Latin America); V. Semi-independent public (state/trustee/guild type), where control is shared among state, academic guilds and lay boards of trustees but with mainly state-controlled financing; and VI. Dependent public, the model in the Communist nations.Kerr traces the historical path that led to the mixed American system and examines some of its positive consequences, which include institutional autonomy, diversity, and flexibility. Negative results include possible over-responsiveness to short-term pressures, as from the labor market or student preferences for courses of study, and from supporting business or industry.The author concludes that the American experience with privatized public institutions may serve as a model for those elsewhere who now seek greater institutional differentiation, autonomy, and flexibility within national systems of higher education.