Artistic and Verbal Creative Capacity of 6‐year‐old Children and their Psychopedagogic and Social Conditioning

The subject of the study comprised individual differences of creative achievements among 6‐year‐old children in two basic and qualitatively different kinds of child's activity: verbal and artistic. The aim of the research was both the analysis of the creative capacity level differentiation and pointing out the hierarchy of factors which determine certain inter‐ and intra‐individual as well as inter‐ and intro‐group differences.

The study is based on the concepts of the creativity theory of Wallach and Kogan (1970) and the capacity theory of Renzulli (1986) and Monks (1981) developed within the framework of humanistic and cognitive psychology.

The researcher analysed 6,000 drawings and the same number of oral statements produced by 643 children attending two types of pre‐schools and living in three different habitats. The research also covered teachers working with the 6‐year‐old children.

The following were used in the study: the test ‘Draw‐a‐Man’ of Goodenough; Guilford's tests of divergent thinking; Uszynska's Questionnaire of self‐estimation; The Schaefer's and Aaronson's Classroom Behaviour Inventory Pre‐school to Primary Scale; Popek's Questionnaire of Creative Behaviour ‘KANH’, and Uszynska's Questionnaire for parents.

The results of the research confirm a great differentiation of creative capacity levels of children and suggest that the most significant factors determining them are the pedagogic ones, which may directly or indirectly be influenced by the preschool teacher.     

The importance of parental book‐reading; tensions between theory and practice

This article is about book‐reading by nine lower class Curaçaoan mothers and their children. All children visited a kindergarten in Curaçao. Curaçao is an island in the Caribbean.

The kindergarten teachers had started a reading project to stimulate parents to read books to their children. Teachers did not know how parents actually read to their children. We conducted the study to describe parent and child activities during joint story‐book reading. We use this project as a case to clarify some of the tensions between notions based on research findings from studies which were mainly conducted with middle class families and projects for educational change which tend to focus on lower class families. Theory tells us that reading with young children should be interactive. Conversations, in which the child actively engages, linking the story or pictures to the child's own knowledge and experiences, are more important to the child's development than reading the story as such. The Curaçaoan reading project is just one example of many project swhich aim at stimulating parental book‐reading without training the parents how book‐reading best can be done.

In the study we found that the parent‐child dyads talkeda lot during book reading. The conversations of some dyads, however, contained many instances of unsuccessful dialogue, and few moments of construction of meaning beyond the actual text. In addition, mothers strongly structured the dialogue that consisted for a large part of retelling the story. It is doubtful whether this type of book reading is as developmen‐tally enriching for the children as is expected and suggested by the teachers.     

Developmental Disharmonies and Pre‐school Setting Adaptation of Children

The aim of the investigations was to examine the course of adaptation process to the pre‐school setting and to establish the effect of developmental disharmonies on this process. The conceptual framework for the research was the Piaget's developmental theory and Bronfenbrenner's ecology of human development theory.

The data was gathered in a longitudinal study design. Indicators of developmental level in four areas (motor characteristics, adaptive behaviour, language and personal‐social development) evaluated with the Gesell Developmental Schedules were used as developmental quotients. Adaptation to pre‐school setting was measured with the aid of Schaefer and Aaronson's Classroom Inventory Preschool to Primary Scale (CBI) and observations of children and interviews with parents and pre‐school teachers. The sample included 76 children aged 3 to 4 years of age (39 boys, 37 girls).

The results show that children display some behaviour disorders during the entry phase to pre‐school setting and that serious developmental disharmonies were accompanied by these disorders.     

TELEVISION IN THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY: A REVIEW FROM FURTHER EDUCATION

The uses and potentialities of educational television as described by recent authors are reviewed, and television compared with film from the viewpoints of producer and audience, while off‐air recordings are compared with ‘home‐made’ programmes.

The author concludes with an extensive review of the literature concerned with the uses of television in the teaching of chemistry. While the review does not attempt to list every possible reference, none of the few that have been omitted adds substantially to the uses mentioned, and the survey should provide a basis for those interested in beginning research in this field, as well as those contemplating the introduction of television into chemistry teaching.

The article was prepared in connection with research into student attitudes to educational television, the results of which will appear in the next issue of the Journal.     

Some Non‐Academic Developmental Correlates of Ability‐Grouping in Secondary Schools

Using data from the National Child Development Study, the relationship between certain non‐academic aspects of children's development and their school's ability‐grouping policy were examined.

The four areas of non‐academic development considered were: the young people's rating of their own ability in English, mathematics, science and practical subjects, their academic motivation, their plans for further education and occupational aspirations and their behaviour at school. However, in general there were no differences in any of these respects between children in streamed, setted and mixed‐ability schools.

The implications of these findings are discussed, in particular the potential differences which could arise between schools with different policies if more appropriate methods of teaching and organisation were adopted.     

Group Process and Emotional Education: Can the group process as described by Louis R. Ormont be effective in modifying the behavior of young children? (A retrospective study)

Several years ago I began to see children in my classroom who did not respond to the techniques I had used for many years to develop behavioural adjustment.

While searching for a new method that would be more effective, I was introduced to Louis Ormont's theories regarding the Group Experience involving adults.

Immediately I began to see the possibility of adjusting the adult Group Process to address the needs of the 5‐6‐year‐olds in my kindergarten class.

In my presentation I will discuss Dr Ormont's theory as I see it relating to my classroom and describe how I implement the Group Process and the results that were achieved over three years’ time with several classes of children.

My presentation will give new meaning to the terms ‘Group Meeting’ and ‘Behavioural Modification’ in the kindergarten classroom. In my mind the results are enormously positive. Children learn to take charge of their own behaviour and are strengthened by the feelings of group membership and personal empowerment.     

Determinants of pre‐school quality in Singapore. An investigation of the effects on teachers,of parents’ involvement

Parents are usually anxious about the quality of pre‐school education for their children and Singapore is no exception. As such, research into quality indicators of pre‐school care and education continues to receive much attention, especially in terms of identifying which aspects are related to positive outcomes for children, their parents and the policy makers. However, the significance of the day to day pre‐school experiences per se, are rarely investigated. Rather than considering outcomes, this paper reports a study which is concerned with pre‐school teachers' views on selected aspects of their working environment, in particular their dealings with parents, as determinant measures of quality in pre‐schools.

The majority of pre‐school centres in Singapore have a central structure and environment which by necessity adheres to government regulations. Except for teachers' views and feelings about aspects of their working conditions, most of the usual measures of centre quality are regulated. The study is concerned to identify which features of their day to day encounters most satisfactorily contribute to their roles as pre‐school teachers, and to examine any differences attributable to qualifications and experience.

The results show, that whilst there are some differences between teachers according to qualifications and experience, amongst the most positive features are satisfaction with parents' involvement, children's behaviour, and positive support from other teachers.     

The Ideology of Health Education in Schools

This paper examines the dominant themes which underlie many of the health education materials used in schools, and explores whether these are the most appropriate if health education is to make a significant contribution to either children's health or their education.

The overall approach to health education is identified as highly individualistic in its emphasis on individual responsibilities, attributes and skills necessary for achieving health. Contradictions, distortions and gaps inherent in this model are revealed. These contribute to identifying this kind of health education as an ideology, which serves least the needs and interests of those children who are likely to experience the greatest ill‐health.

The ways in which this approach is inappropriate for schoolchildren are illustrated by a case study, which compares the drinking experiences of a group of children with the alcohol education materials designed for them.

To conclude, improvements to both health education for slow learners and more generally to health education in schools are discussed. These include the development of an approach which is both child‐centred, and critical in locating individual choices about health within the social, economic and political contexts of local communities and wider society.

     

Effectiveness of Coaching Socially Withdrawn/Isolated Children in Specific Social Skills

Ladd demonstrated the effectiveness of the social learning method for increasing social interactive behaviour of ‘mildly’ withdrawn/isolated children with their peers. The present study replicated Ladd's investigation with two important differences:

1. the subjects were ‘severely’ withdrawn/isolated children, and

2. the training sessions, unlike Ladd's fixed time schedule, continued until the subject's level of performance reached the level of ‘average’ peers in each targeted social skill.

The findings indicated that the social learning method increased social interaction of ‘severely’ withdrawn/isolated children with their peers. However increasing their rate of behaviour in targeted social skills to the level of performance of their ‘average’ peers required approximately four times as many sessions of training as Ladd conducted with ‘mildly’ withdrawn/isolated children.     

Cognitive Style and Problem Behaviour in Boys Referred to Residential Special Schools

The paper considers aberrant behaviour in the context of cognitive style with reference to both diagnosis and treatment.

Aims.

The aims of the study were to investigate whether the style of pupils with behaviour problems was different from that of children with no reported problems, and also to consider how pupils of different style manifested their problem behaviours.

Sample.

The sample comprised 83 male pupils aged 10‐18 years from two residential special schools.

Method.

The sample were given the Cognitive Styles Analysis to assess their positions on the Wholist‐Analytic and Verbal‐Imagery style dimensions. The pupil records of the special school pupils who were at the extreme of the style dimensions were also examined.

Results.

When their style characteristics were contrasted with a Comparison Sample of 413 12‐16‐year‐old males attending 10 secondary schools, the special school pupils had a significantly higher proportion of both Wholists and Verbalisers, than the Comparison Group. Further, the inspection of the records indicated that the types of social behaviour and behaviour problems exhibited varied with style, and particularly on the Wholist‐Analytic dimension.

Conclusion.

The results were considered to have implications for the origins and treatment of problem behaviour.     

Behaviour Modification in the Secondary School: issues and outcomes

The dearth of behaviour modification research carried out in secondary school situations is recognised and an emphasis on ‘heavy’ behavioural interventions in both North America and UK research literature is identified. Additionally attention is drawn to a lack of repeated replication studies in single‐case experimental design in general‐‐a shortcoming that reduces the case for claiming generalisability of findings of many research outcomes.

This paper reports the effects on Secondary school classroom on‐task behaviour of a number of ‘light’ behavioural interventions. Six whole class studies are reported. Increase in pupil on‐task behaviour resulted in three cases‐‐though in one situation a return to baseline phase was not attempted. In two further cases inconclusive outcomes resulted and the reasons for this are discussed. In one case initial levels of on‐task behaviour were so high that little room for improvement was possible.

The lack of demonstration of the effect of the interventions on any individual pupil's behaviour is recognised, although positive outcome data for one pupil are reported.

The conclusion is drawn that ‘light’ behavioural strategies can effect change in the behaviour of secondary aged pupils in a positive direction.     

Young Children's Symbol‐Making Tools and Factors Influencing Their Availability,Selection and Use: An International Survey

Families and schools play essential roles introducing children to the tools of their culture, including pencils and other symbol‐making instruments. Child development and education specialists from Africa, Asia, Europe, and North and South America confirm these roles and reveal that symbol‐making tools, as cultural artifacts, reflect countries’ levels of human development, including life expectancy, literacy, and purchasing power.

In countries of low and moderate levels of human development children are more likely to use commercial symbol‐making tools first in schools, not homes. The symbol‐making tools most widely available to young children are pencils and crayons. Yet, when commercial tools are unavailable, children create their own, using objects from the natural environment.

The pencils used by most young children are standard adult‐sized while crayons, brushes, and markers are more varied in size. In most countries children use symbol‐making tools freely and with adult direction. Nonetheless, adult‐directed tool use decreases and free use increases as human development levels rise.

Place of residence, socio‐economic status, teacher and parent educational levels, and commercial availability account for often wide within‐country variations in child access to and use of symbol‐making tools. Finally, symbol‐making tool design and use appear to be based on tradition rather than research.

     

Spatial concepts and young children

This presentation looks at how young children learn basic geometrical concepts. Piaget's developmental levels will be examined to determine how they fit into the current research project. These will be compared with materials from the Soviet States that have recently become available from the NCTP in the USA.

The research project was constructed in a number of early childhood centres in a variety of socio‐economic areas. All of these centres had an early intervention program in operation so that special needs or ‘exceptional’ children could be observed along with mainstream children.

The researcher is investigating children's learning styles to determine the children's preferred learning styles when exploring spatial concepts. The question of whether exceptional children progress through the same stages and in the same order as the mainstream children is also being considered.

Spatial concepts in early childhood is an area that seems to have been neglected by researchers in favour of the development of number concepts. This research project aims to add to our knowledge of how young children learn spatial concepts.

     

Comrades or—? Women Graduate Students Look at the Presence of Men Graduate Students in Feminist Academe

Interviews with some women graduate students at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education reveal that the presence of men students in feminist academe is a complex and conflicted issue. Women respondents were concerned about men's personal, political and epistemological appropriation of feminist space in academe. The women's concerns arise out of men's actual behaviour and/or perceived motivation inside and outside the classroom. Such concerns are possibly linked to the women students’ sense of proprietorship over the women's studies enterprise.

     

Writing for Change: Developing Class One textbooks and readers in Andhra Pradesh,Southern India

Ongoing work in Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (APPEP) (Southern India) has resulted in the production of a new Class 1 textbook, teacher textbook and eight supplementary readers. These important and innovative new classroom materials have been produced as a result of training and workshops involving resource persons from the Telugu Academy, Telugu University, State Centre for Educational Research and Training and lecturers in District Institutes of Education and Training. Additionally, for the first time, primary school teachers were co‐opted on an equal basis to work on the materials.

The textbook, which constitutes the only learning material in Class One, is designed to teach children to read and write in Telugu. Previous research showed that children at the end of Class 2 were mostly unable to identify letters or words out of the context and order in which they appeared in the textbook. The current state textbook was basically a writing primer, teaching writing in alphabetic order with reading rarely going beyond single words or sentences.

The new textbook incorporates the necessary ‘reading context’ using rhymes, short stories and dialogue to encourage shared reading with the teacher before individual letters are learned. The order of introduction of the letters for writing has been based on research showing generalisable shapes in letters; alphabetic order is learned as a separate item. The pictures in the book were designed to promote discussion and develop prediction and an understanding of story structure. The content was matched to the child's developmental and psychological needs.

The teacher textbook incorporates ideas for extending learning into activities and exercises and consists of the children's textbook interleaved with teacher guidance. The evaluation shows that this teacher guidance has been used and valued by the teachers.

The eight supplementary readers are at four levels. Level One is for shared reading with the teacher and includes folk stories, songs and a story about a family. Level Two are picture books with simple captions and sentences using only the letters and words already learned by the child. Level Three progresses to more extensive stories including some information based stories. Level Four revisits Level One for independent reading of the same books.

The books have been trialled in 50 sample schools matched on a number of variables to 50 control schools. A pre‐reading test was administered to all children and a post‐reading test measured learning gains. Case studies of the books in use in classrooms were also undertaken. The evaluation to date shows significant learning gains amongst the children in the sample schools, a high degree of teacher satisfaction and interest and approval from parents and children. A resource team including teachers has been trained for further renewal of textbooks throughout the primary years.

This work has been funded by the Overseas Development Administration and they will fund the provision of eight supplementary readers in all Class One in schools throughout the state in 1996. After revision the textbook will be implemented by the Government of Andhra Pradesh.     

Historical and Sociological Perspectives of the Contemporary Kindergarten in the USA

Kindergarten education in the US has a rich heritage. The roots date back to the influence of Froebel with an emphasis on play and to Susan Blow and her concern for the whole child. Comenius regarded early childhood and kindergarten as an inseparable part of education and society as a whole rather than a separate entity. His belief parallels the contemporary approach to kindergarten, as it is increasingly being viewed on a continuum in the educational process.

Significant societal and educational changes in the US during the last two decades have influenced kindergarten education for five‐year‐olds. The American family structure has been effected by the increased divorce rate, the economy, and the increase in two‐employed parents.

Education changes include a shift to an emphasis on standardised testing at all levels, accountability, and the incorporation of four‐year‐olds in public schools. The result has been a ‘spiraling down’ of academic expectations.

In addition, schools are responding to the needs of demographic shifts in the nature of the population. Increasing numbers of children have multicultural backgrounds and English in their second language.

These societal and educational changes have precipitated the movement to the all day kindergarten. As more and more schools offer an all day experience to kindergarten children, numerous issues surface that challenge the original purpose of kindergarten. Entrance age, screening practices, retention, commercial books and materials are all influencing the nature of the all day kindergarten.

The current focus in the US on developmental appropriate practice places the emphasis on child‐centred programs that utilise hands‐ on learning and attention to the development of the whole child. A strong parent education and involvement component, a rich environment, and a qualified teacher are components of a quality kindergarten program. These issues and trends will be discussed within the context of the historical perspective of kindergarten education. The results of a current and thorough literature review will be shared with participants.     

Children's Activities and their Effect on Child Development: The results of the IE A Pre‐primary Project in Poland

Poland took part in phases 2 and 3 of the IEA Pre‐primary ‘Quality of Life’ project initiated by the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation in Ypsilanti (US) and early childhood research workers from a wide range of countries. This article sets out a small part of the work undertaken in Poland, namely the results of observations of: the children's activities, the teacher's behaviour, the management of children's time in the kindergarten, the relationship between these variables, and their connection with the state of development of the children at 4‐ and 7‐years‐old.

     

Contexts for Independent Learning

One major world view that dominates the field of developmental psychology is the organismic world view. This world view depicts individuals, including children, as active agents who know the world in terms of their own operations upon it. Individuals are seen as being in control of their own learning. This control is exercised by individuals initiating and maintaining their own learning opportunities within a responsive social context.

The responsive social context is increasingly seen by developmental psychologists (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Wood, 1982) as of fundamental importance for the acquisition of intellectual skills. It is within responsive social contexts that individuals acquire not only specific skills but also generic knowledge about how to learn. It is this generic knowledge that allows individuals a measure of control over, and hence independence in, these social contexts.

Educational policy statements, school prospectuses and, more recently, the Core Curriculum, abound with aims and objectives to do with achieving individual autonomy and independence as a learner. Yet there is growing evidence that in many contemporary classrooms at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, we may be providing precisely the wrong contexts for students to become autonomous and independent learners. Too many classroom learning environments simply do not qualify as responsive social contexts. Individual learners have minimal control over learning interactions and hence are excessively dependent on external control by teachers.

Theoretical explanations for differences between unskilled and skilled performance are being sought increasingly in terms of characteristics of the specific contexts in which performance occurs and less in terms of qualitative differences in global capacities or in thinking processes between individuals (Wood, 1982). For example, differences in complexity of oral language between three‐year‐old children might be explained by differences in the amount and quality of language exchange with caregivers. They might also be explained by differences in caregiver skills in interpreting and responding to needs signalled by an individual child's use of language in a particular context. If we are genuinely concerned about aims of autonomy and independence in learning, then we need to discover and analyse those characteristics of responsive environments which support and promote independent learning. On the basis of existing research it is possible to specify four such characteristics of responsive learning contexts.