Exploratory Behavior,Task Persistence,Across the Second Year of Life and Problem-Solving Ability

The present study focuses on individual differences in specific qualitative aspects of infants' exploratory behavior, task persistence, and problem-solving ability. Longitudinal questions concern the stability of these behaviors across the second year of life and the relationship between early exploration and task persistence and later problem- solving ability. Twenty-nine infants were observed at 12 months and again at 26 to 28 months of age. Behavior was observed on two exploratory and two problem-solving tasks, and a wide range of individual differences was found. The longitudinal results suggest stability between one and two years of age in terms of the cognitive sophistication of behavior rather than in correlations between identical index behaviors. Longitudinal stability was not found for task persistence. Also, infants who used more different schemes to explore at one year were found to be more successful and sophisticated in problem solving at age two. It is concluded that the quality and range of behaviors used during exploration have important developmental significance, rather than the use of any specific behavior, or persistent behavior, regardless of the degree of sophistication.     

Freedom of Choice,Task Performance,and Task Persistence

Much current educational literature argues that providing the learner more freedom in the learning situation enhances the learning process. This experiment tested two relevant hypotheses: (1) Ss who freely choose a task will perform better at that task than Ss who are forced to do it; and (2) Ss who freely choose a task will persist longer at that task than those who are forced to do it. The experiment employed a yoked-8 design in which the first S chose to perform any of five tasks, while the second S was forced to perform that same task. The results supported only the second hypothesis. A suggested explanation of the effects of freedom of choice as a psychological variable was presented.     

The Cultural Organization of Parenting: Change and Stability of Behavior Patterns During Feeding and Social Play Across the First Year of Life

Objective. This study explores the cultural patterning of maternal beliefs and practices across the first year of life among middle-class Anglo and Puerto Rican mother-infant dyads in two daily situations, feeding and social play. Design. Sixty middle-class mothers (32 Anglo from northeastern Connecticut, and 28 Puerto Rican from San Juan, Puerto Rico) were interviewed regarding their long-term socialization goals and videotaped in their homes during feeding and social play when their infants were 4-, 8-, and 12-months of age. Results. Group comparisons revealed that across time and contexts the Anglo mothers were more likely to show patterns of beliefs and behaviors that emphasized the infant's personal choice and mastery of the situation, whereas the Puerto Rican mothers were more likely to show patterns of beliefs and behaviors that emphasized the infant's interdependence on the mother. The groups did not differ in nurturant behaviors toward their infants. Conclusions. The organization of feeding and social play differs by culture. Within this larger cultural frame, mother-infant interactions differ by context and adjust to universal aspects of infant development.     

Change in Thinking Demands for Students Across the Phases of a Science Task: An Exploratory Study

Science education communities around the world have increasingly emphasized engaging students in the disciplinary practices of science as they engage in high levels of reasoning about scientific ideas. Consistently, this is a critical moment in time in the USA as it goes through a new wave of science education reform within the context of Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). We argue that the placement of high demands on students’ thinking (i.e., a high level of thinking) in combination with positioning students to use disciplinary practices as they try to make sense of scientific ideas (i.e., a deep kind of thinking) constitute critical aspects of the reform. The main purpose of this paper is to identify and describe the kinds and levels of thinking in which students engage when they are invited to think and reason as demanded by NGSS-aligned curricular tasks. Our analysis of video records of classrooms in which an NGSS-aligned, cognitively demanding task was used, revealed many ways in which the aspirational level and kind of student thinking will not be met in many science classrooms. We propose a way of characterizing and labeling the differences among these kinds and levels of thinking during the implementation of a reform-based biology curriculum. These categories, which focus on two important features emphasized in the NGSS, can help us to better understand, diagnose, and communicate issues during the implementation of high-level tasks in science classrooms.

     

Student Task Modeling in Design and Evaluation of Open Problem-Solving Environments

Design and evaluation of computer-based open problem solving environments is a non-trivial task. Definition of a design framework, which involves a strong field-evaluation phase, has been the subject of the research described in this paper. This framework is based on the concept of student task modeling. Tools to support design and evaluation have been built and used in the frame of this study. The framework and the developed tools have produced promising results during the evaluation of an open problem-solving educational environment.     

Stability of Observed Maternal Behavior Across Tasks,Time, and Siblings

Objective. To further understanding of the stability and variability in maternal behavior across tasks, time, and sibling pairs. Design. Mothers (a total of 451) were observed separately in interactions with two of their children across two tasks and three time points. Independent observers rated responsive and negative maternal behaviors. Results. Moderate to large correlations across tasks (responsivity = .51; negativity = .41), time points (responsivity = .40; negativity = .38), and siblings (responsivity = .56; negativity = .49) were found. Although these correlations indicate significant stability (i.e., consistency) of maternal behavior, they also indicate variability, with unexplained variance ranging from 69–84% for responsivity and 75–86% for negativity. Conclusions. Proportions of maternal behavior across tasks, time, and siblings can and cannot be accurately predicted given examination of maternal behavior in a comparable task, later time point, or sibling. The current study underscores the importance of considering both stability and variability as equally critical components for understanding maternal behavior.     

Literacy Growth in the Academic Year Versus Summer From Preschool Through Second Grade: Differential Effects of Schooling Across Four Skills

Differences in literacy growth over the summer versus the school year were examined to isolate how schooling affects children's literacy development from preschool through second grade across four literacy skills. Children (n = 383) were tested individually twice each year for up to 4 years on measures of phonological awareness, decoding, reading comprehension, and vocabulary. Growth curve analyses indicated that schooling effects were greatest for decoding skills and reading comprehension, were medium in size for phonological awareness, and were less evident for vocabulary. Except for vocabulary, relatively small amounts of growth were observed for preschoolers, followed by a period of rapid growth for kindergarteners and first graders, which slowed again for second graders. Findings demonstrate the differential effect of schooling on four separate literacy skills during the crucial school transition period.     

Parenting during the Second Year: Effects of Children's Age, Sex, and Attachment Classification

70 2-parent families with 12-month-old infants and 67 2-parent families with 18-month-old toddlers participated in the study. Mothers and fathers participated in separate interviews and filled out questionnaires on family and child behaviors. Mothers and their children participated in the Ainsworth Strange Situation, and the families were observed for a total of 4 hours in their homes. Families were compared on composite measures of family environment variables, parents' perception of their children, and on process variables from home observations. Family differences in environmental stress and marital adjustment showed no effects for attachment classifications, although parents of 12-month-olds reported greater marital adjustment and more pleasure in parenting than parents of 18-months-olds. Both mothers and fathers reported that children classified as resistant were more difficult on several temperament measures. During home observations, 12-month-old children received more positive responses from mothers, and 18-month-old children received more instructions and directions from both parents. Insecure boys (both avoidant and resistant) received the least instructions and directions from both parents, but insecure-avoidant girls received the most instruction from fathers.     

公孙弘第二次贤良对策时间考

关于公孙弘第二次贤良对策的时间,学界存在着以<汉纪>、<资治通鉴>为代表的元光五年说和以梁玉绳<史记志疑>为代表的元光元年说两种不同观点.文章认为班固是以元光五年为公孙弘第二次对策之年的,元光元年说错误.但由于<汉纪>、<资治通鉴>在利用史料时存在漏洞,无意中为本来无误的元光五年说制造了硬伤,而导致了后来以<史记志疑>为代表的错误的元光元年说的盛行.     

Changes in Cooperation and Self-Other Differentiation during the Second Year

Cooperation in peer interaction emerges during the second half of the second year. A consideration of the skills and knowledge entailed in these early forms of cooperation suggests that young children's emerging ability to differentiate self from other as causal agents may relate to their ability to coordinate behavior with age mates toward a common goal. Children at 12, 18, 24, and 30 months were observed in same-age, same-sex dyads (8 dyads per age) while attempting to solve a simple cooperation problem. They were also individually administered an elicited imitation task used to index decentration, or self-other differentiation. No 12-month-old dyad could cooperate, 18-month-olds did so infrequently and apparently accidentally, whereas 24- and 30-month-olds were able to coordinate behavior with one another quickly and effectively. Children who were better able to accommodate their behavior to one another during cooperation also represented the agency of others at a more advanced, decentered level.     

Achievement Goals and Persistence Across Tasks: The Roles of Failure and Success

The focus of this study is on the role of achievement goals in students’ persistence. The authors administered 5 puzzles to 96 college students: 4 unsolvable and 1 relatively easy (acting as a hope probe). They examined whether and how persistence may deteriorate as a function of failing the puzzles, as well as whether and how persistence may rebound after an event of success. Time spent engaging in the task comprised the dependent variable persistence (representing a behavioral aspect of engagement). Results suggested that mastery-oriented students persisted significantly longer compared with performance approach–oriented, performance avoidance–oriented, and amotivated students across failure trials. However, performance approach–oriented students were more likely to rebound after experiencing success. Qualitative data provided insights into the affective processes that accompanied engagement with the task.     

Parent-Child Relationships, Family Problem-Solving Behavior, and Sibling Relationship Quality: The Moderating Role of Sibling Temperaments

In this study we sought to determine whether sibling temperaments moderated the associations of parent-child relationship quality and family problem-solving behavior with sibling relationship quality. Observational assessments of mother-child and father-child relationship quality, family problem-solving behavior, and sibling relationship quality were obtained from the families of 49 pairs of brothers and 46 pairs of sisters. Mean ages were 10-2 for older siblings and 7-6 for younger siblings. Parent-reported child temperament assessments were also obtained. The links among mother–older child relationship quality, father–older child relationship quality, and sibling relationship quality were moderated by the older sibling's temperament. The younger and older siblings' temperaments moderated the associations between the quality of the father–younger sibling and sibling relationships. The association between family problem-solving behavior and sibling relationship quality was not moderated by sibling temperaments.     

Classroom Popularity Hierarchy Predicts Prosocial and Aggressive Popularity Norms Across the School Year

This study examined the coevolution of prosocial and aggressive popularity norms with popularity hierarchy (asymmetries in students’ popularity). Cross-lagged-panel analyses were conducted on 2,843 secondary school students (N_classrooms = 120; M_age = 13.18; 51.3% girls). Popularity hierarchy predicted relative change in popularity norms over time, but not vice versa. Specifically, classrooms with few highly popular and many unpopular students increased in aggressive popularity norms at the beginning of the school year and decreased in prosocial popularity norms at the end of the year. Also, strong within-classroom asymmetries in popularity predicted relatively higher aggressive popularity norms. These findings may indicate that hierarchical contexts elicit competition for popularity, with high aggression and low prosocial behavior being seen as valuable tools to achieve popularity.     

Children's Emerging Regulation of Conduct: Restraint, Compliance, and Internalization from Infancy to the Second Year

We examined emergent regulation of conduct from infancy to the second year. Multiple observational measures at home and in the laboratory assessed, at 8–10 months, the child's restraint and attention ( N = 112), and at 13–15 months, compliance to mother, internalization of her prohibition, and quality of motivation in the mother-child teaching context ( N = 108). We replicated the findings previously reported for older children that supported our view of compliance and noncompliance as heterogenous: Committed compliance was higher to maternal "don'ts" than "dos," with the reverse true for situational compliance; girls surpassed boys in committed compliance; and committed, but not situational, compliance related positively, and passive noncompliance negatively, to children's internalization of maternal prohibition. We extended previous work into three new directions: children's committed compliance and passive noncompliance in control contexts related predictably to their motivation in mother-child teaching contexts; restraint at 8–10 months predicted higher committed compliance at 13–15 months; and focused attention at 8–10 months was associated with contemporaneous restraint and modestly with committed compliance to maternal "dos" at 13–15 months.     

Second Life教育应用的现状、问题与趋势

当前．以Second Life为代表的三维虚拟世界在教育领域的应用尝试愈来愈广泛，显示出重要的特定价值。本文采用文献调研的方法对Second Life教育应用的现状进行了归纳与梳理，分析了Second Life应用于教育实践所面临的问题．指出其教育应用的未来发展趋向。Second life的教育应用实践表现出如下特点：学科教学种类呈现多样性，广泛应用于语言、天文、医学、商业、艺术设计、历史等学科的教学；教学实践形式呈现多元化，包括虚拟课堂、远程教学、教学实验、技能训练、虚拟图书馆等；教学对象年龄呈现层次性，针对成年人和青少年设置了不同的系统版本；教学活动设计呈现创造性，提供创造工具，并且以创造物的所有权保护政策激励参与者创作。然而Second Life教育应用面临的问题包括：支持系统流畅运行的硬件配置要求高；教学应用的土地需要支付一定的费用；用户的技术认知负荷高，对掌握Second Life操作技术的需求强烈；用户的创造力不足，支持教育教学活动的资源匮乏；道德缺失与法律监管不力等。未来，Second Life教育应用的发展需要在技术方面，突破技术瓶颈，为用户构建流畅的应用体验；在用户方面，提升师生的应用技能，培养师生的创新意识，为教学提供更多的优质资源；在教学方面，关注主体的差异，为学生提供个性化的教学。     

Ageless and Timeless: Perspectives on Giftedness Across the Life Span

Annemarie Roeper’s timeless perspectives were demonstrated throughout her long and productive life. Her prolific writings and speeches continue to influence our understanding of giftedness at all ages and stages of life, and the time I spent with her had a profound and meaningful effect on my work. Annemarie incorporated her inner view of giftedness into her definition, her collaboration with her husband George in developing the Roeper Philosophy and Roeper School, her global perspectives, and her qualitative assessment approach to understanding children and identifying those who are gifted. Direct involvement with Annemarie has been especially influential in my thinking about gifted adults, including educators and parents. The quality of agelessness that Annemarie demonstrated in the later years of her life also has been instrumental in helping me and others develop greater understanding of giftedness across the life span.     

横跨“理工农”的学生创新能力培养体系的构建

西南科技大学生命科学与工程学院围绕全面贯彻"强化基础训练、提高能力、实现综合培养"的实践教学改革思路,构建"五模块、四结合"的学生实践与创新能力培养的实践教学体系并搭建创新实践平台,在培养学生创新意识和提升创新能力方面起到了显著作用。     

High‐Risk Drinking in College Athletes and Nonathletes Across the Academic Year

This study compared heavy drinking and alcohol‐related consequences between freshman student‐athletes (n = 137) and nonathletes (n = 318). Differences in high‐risk drinking between the fall and spring terms were also examined. Results indicated that student‐athletes reported heavier drinking and higher levels of alcohol‐related consequences than did nonathletes. In addition, student‐athletes reported the highest levels of drinking and alcohol‐related consequences in the spring term. Implications for college counseling prevention programming are discussed.     

Levels of Language Competence and Reading Ability: an Exploratory Investigation

Associations have been found between reading ability around the age of seven to eight years and communicative competence, indicating a stage corresponding to the Piagetian concrete operations stage. It was not known, however, whether children who lagged at that stage in learning to read and in acquiring communicative competence would eventually‘catch up’with their peers in both these areas. This paper reports an exploratory study of this issue with adults who had not learnt to read as children although they were of average intelligence, and had no obvious physical defect. The objectives were: (a) to investigate whether these adults would perform on the same level as normal reading peers on language tasks requiring communicative and analytic competence; (b) to investigate whether performance on these tasks would be related to level of vocabulary comprehension and intelligence. No significant differences were found between the groups in their performance on the tasks involving communicative competence. However, normal readers scored significantly higher in tasks requiring analytic competence or the ability to retrieve and transform verbal material. In addition, the pattern of correlations was different for the two groups, suggesting that they had undergone different courses of cognitive development. The results cannot tell us whether the ability to read, or lack of it, influenced the development of these functions or vice versa. It seems from this investigation, however, that not all functions of oral language develop to the same extent in readers and in non-readers, and that this is not related solely to IQ.     

The Redemption Hope and Persistence of Life on Shaw shank

The film was about the caring and smart banker Andy Dufresne,who is falsely accused and convicted of the murder of his wife and her lover.He is sent to Shawshank prison in 1940,he met many fellow prisoners,including Red,a fellow inmate serving a life sentence,who has recently failed to gain parole became his important friend later.During his time at Shawshank Andy’s way of life is changed,he helped the head of the prison do the illegal things in order to gain some freedom,he rebuilt the library and helped the other prisoners,they all liked him,for he helped them find hope again,he was the model of dignity among them,also he never lost his hope.