From novice to no know-how: A longitudinal study of implicit motor learning

The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the performances of implicit and explicit learners would converge over an extended period of learning. Participants practised a complex motor skill - golf putting - for 3000 trials, either with a concurrent secondary, tone-counting task (implicit learning) or without such a task (explicit learning). The cognitive demands of the secondary task were predicted to prevent the accumulation of verbalizable rules about the motor task. The implicit group reported significantly fewer rules than the explicit group on subsequent verbal protocols. The performance of the implicit group remained below that of the explicit group throughout the learning phase. However, no significant differences were found between groups during a delayed retention test. Additionally, for the participants in the explicit group only, a Reinvestment Scale score correlated positively with the number of rules accrued and negatively with overall putting performance during the learning phase. We use the results to argue against the excessive use of verbal instruction during skill acquisition, which might be unnecessary and ultimately might hamper performance under stressful conditions.     

From novice to no know-how: a longitudinal study of implicit motor learning

The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the performances of implicit and explicit learners would converge over an extended period of learning. Participants practised a complex motor skill--golf putting--for 3000 trials, either with a concurrent secondary, tone-counting task (implicit learning) or without such a task (explicit learning). The cognitive demands of the secondary task were predicted to prevent the accumulation of verbalizable rules about the motor task. The implicit group reported significantly fewer rules than the explicit group on subsequent verbal protocols. The performance of the implicit group remained below that of the explicit group throughout the learning phase. However, no significant differences were found between groups during a delayed retention test. Additionally, for the participants in the explicit group only, a Reinvestment Scale score correlated positively with the number of rules accrued and negatively with overall putting performance during the learning phase. We use the results to argue against the excessive use of verbal instruction during skill acquisition, which might be unnecessary and ultimately might hamper performance under stressful conditions.     

双任务中内隐运动技能学习对提高保持成绩的作用

本实验研究的目的是,调查在双任务条件下一个运动系列能否被不觉察地掌握,内隐学习是否比外显学习更有效地增加保持.36名实验对象被随机分为内隐学习组或外显学习组.要求所有被试通过敲击一个键盘上的F和J键,来移动计算机屏幕上的横杆,去接住一个下落的小球.一个固定的5种小球下落曲线的系列被安插在每组15次练习的中段.同时,实验参加者需要数每组练习中的所听到的嘟嘟声的数目,以作为第二项任务.在掌握该技能后的24小时进行3次保持测验.ANOVA分析发现固定小球下落曲线段的接球成绩随着练习的增加而提高,但是练习对随机段没有作用.尽管两种练习条件下,运动技能学习成绩没有差异,但内隐学习组比外显学习组在模拟接球的保持测试和第二项任务中表现较准确.这些结果显示内隐学习是一个改善运动技能长期记忆的有效手段,并且与外显学习相比,它在练习中占用较少的认知资源.     

Implicit and Explicit Exercise and Sedentary Identity

We examined the relationship between implicit and explicit “exerciser” and “sedentary” self-identity when activated by stereotypes. Undergraduate participants (N = 141) wrote essays about university students who either liked to exercise or engage in sedentary activities. This was followed by an implicit identity task and an explicit measure of exercise self-identity. Results showed that implicit and explicit exerciser identities were not highly correlated. There were also no significant prime effects, but women showed greater implicit sedentary identity, whereas men showed greater implicit exercise identity. This research suggests that implicit exercise-related identity is a distinct construct from explicit exercise identity. The results also reflect responses to societal pressures for women to be thin and for men to be strong, when free of self-presentational bias.     

Cross-cultural generalizability of the theory of planned behavior among young people in a physical activity context

The present study tested the cross-cultural generalizability of the measurement and structural parameters of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) among youth in a physical activity context. Pupils from five cultural groups completed measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and intentions for physical activity. Five weeks later, participants completed self-report measures of physical activity behavior. Confirmatory factor analyses and multisample structural equation models revealed well-fitting models within each sample with minimal variations in the measurement parameters across cultures. There were a few significant cross-cultural differences in the structural relations among the TPB constructs. Attitudes predicted intentions in all samples (beta range = .300 to .550), whereas the effect of the subjective norms on intention was nonsignificant in all but the Hungarian sample (beta = .243). Conversely, the effect of PBC on intentions was significant (beta range = .302 to .573) in all but the Hungarian sample. Findings support the generalizability of the measures and pattern of effects for the TPB among young people in a physical activity context.     

“I am” versus “we are”: Effects of distinctive variants of self-talk on efficacy beliefs and motor performance

Abstract

Before completing a team-based dart-throwing activity, 80 undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of three pre-performance self-talk conditions: (a) self-talk statements that focused upon one's personal capabilities, (b) self-talk statements emphasizing the group's capabilities, or (c) a control condition where neutral statements were implemented. Participants in all conditions subsequently rated their confidence in their own (i.e. self-efficacy) as well as their team's (i.e. collective efficacy) capabilities, before carrying out the task. Overall, self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and performance indicators were all greatest for individuals who practised self-talk focusing on the group's capabilities, as opposed to individual-focused and neutral conditions. Findings are considered with respect to their novel theoretical contribution to the social cognition literature and their implications for fostering efficacy perceptions and team performance.     

Pedometer reliability, validity and daily activity targets among 10- to 15-year-old boys

The aims of this study were to: (1) determine whether the number of pedometer counts recorded by adolescents differs according to the adiposity of the participant or location on the body; (2) assess the accuracy and reliability of pedometers during field activity; and (3) set adolescent pedometer-based physical activity targets. Seventy-eight 11- to 15-year-old Boy Scouts completed three types of activity: walking, fast walking and running. Each type was performed twice. Participants wore three pedometers and one activity monitor during all activities. Participants were divided into groups of normal weight (BMI < 85th percentile) and at risk of being overweight (BMI > or = 85th percentile). Intra-class correlations across the three activities indicated reliability (r = 0.51 - 0.92, P < 0.001). This conclusion was supported by narrow limits of agreement that were within a pre-set range that was practically meaningful. Multivariate analysis of covariance indicated adiposity group differences, but this difference was a function of the increased stature among the larger participants (P < 0.001). Ordinary least-squares regression models and multi-level regression models showed positive associations between the number of pedometer and activity monitor counts recorded by the three groups of participants during all activities (all P < 0.001). The mean number of counts recorded for all participants during the fast walk was 127 counts per minute. In conclusion, the pedometers provided an accurate assessment of adolescent physical activity, and a conservative estimate of 8000 pedometer counts in 60 min is equivalent to 60 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity.     

青少年运动员内隐攻击性的特点与差异研究

采用内隐联想测验(IAT)方法,探讨青少年运动员内隐攻击性的特点与差异情况.结果表明:(1)青少年运动员的攻击性行为倾向具有明显的自动化特征,表现出积极的内隐攻击性态度.(2)青少年运动员的内隐攻击性存在着性别、技术等级、训练年限及项目特点差异;男运动员比女运动员有更强的内隐攻击性;不同技术水平运动员内隐攻击性的强度无显著性差异;4年以下训练年限运动员的内隐攻击性强度显著高于9年以上的运动员,并呈现出训练年限越长青少年运动员内隐攻击性强度越弱的趋势;集体项目运动员比个人项目运动员有更强的内隐攻击性.     

Implicit and explicit attitudes towards sport among young elite athletes with high versus low burnout symptoms

The development of cynical attitudes towards elite sport is a core symptom of athlete burnout and has been associated with dropout from elite sport. To date, this phenomenon has mainly been studied by investigating explicit attitudes towards sport, whereas athletes’ automatic evaluations (i.e. implicit attitudes) that have been shown to influence behavior as well were not considered. This study aimed to compare explicit and implicit attitudes towards sport of young elite athletes with high (N = 24) versus low (N = 26) burnout symptoms. Using self-reported measures, general and athlete burnout symptoms were assessed. Additionally, a single-target implicit association test was administered to examine participants’ automatic evaluation of sport. Statistical analysis revealed greater emotional/physical exhaustion and sport devaluation in athletes reporting high compared to low burnout symptoms. Implicit attitudes towards sport did not significantly differ between the groups. Furthermore, no significant correlations were observed between different athlete burnout symptoms and implicit attitudes. Athletes with high burnout symptoms show a tendency to explicitly detach themselves from sport, thus fostering sport devaluation as a core symptom of athlete burnout. However, this process does not seem to be reflected in their implicit attitudes towards sport.     

社会赞许能否调节内隐认知与外显认知的关系

自Greenwald(1995)[1]提出内隐联结测验以来,内隐认知成为社会认知研究的热点。在已往研究中,内隐认知(含内隐态度和内隐自尊)和外显认知(含外显态度和外显自尊)存在低相关,但是这个相关系数在一定范围内存在波动。本文将通过两个研究来探究这一波动背后的原因,即寻找影响两者关系的第三变量——社会赞许。研究一:探测了34名在校大学生的社会赞许倾向、内隐自尊和外显自尊。结果显示受社会赞许影响不同的人,内隐自尊和外显自尊相关系数存在数值上的高低差异,但这个差异没有达到显著效果。另外,受社会赞许影响不同的两组被试在外显自尊维度上存在显著差异。研究二:探测了45名体育大学优秀运动员对兴奋剂和普通饮料的内隐、外显态度。结果显示对服用兴奋剂和服用普通饮料这两种受社会赞许影响不同的行为,被试的内隐和外显态度的相关有细微差异,但这个差异也没有达到显著效果。另外,这两种行为态度,在外显态度的维度上存在显著差异。上述两个研究的结果显示社会赞许对内隐认知和外显认知的关系的调节作用不显著,文中讨论了这一结果产生的原因。     

Measuring physical activity in field studies: Comparison of a questionnaire, 24-hour recall and an accelerometer

Abstract

In a field setting, we compared a physical activity questionnaire (SQUASH), a 24-hour recall measure (Physical Activity Scale; PAS), and an accelerometer to: (1) quantify the amount of time spent in light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity; (2) calculate activity scores; and (3) categorize participants by physical activity tertiles. For 7 consecutive days, 103 participants (61% males, 39% females; mean age 36.8 years, mean body mass index 26.6 kg·m^?2) wore an accelerometer and completed the PAS. Immediately before these 7 days, the participants completed the SQUASH and underwent anthropometric measurements (weight and height). Time spent in light (<3 METs), moderate (3–6 METs), and vigorous (≥6 METs) activity was calculated. Significant correlations were observed between the PAS and accelerometer in the population as a whole (r=0.66, P<0.001), the males (r=0.76, P<0.001), participants of normal weight (r=0.62, P<0.05), and those who were overweight (r=0.53, P<0.01). Correlations between the SQUASH and accelerometer were only significant for males (r=0.62, P<0.05) and overweight individuals (r=0.40, P<0.05). Moderate agreement was observed between tertiles for the accelerometer and PAS activity scores in the overall population (weighted kappa =0.47; 95% confidence interval =0.27–0.67) but not between the accelerometer and SQUASH. In conclusion, a 7-day administration of the PAS is a useful measure for classification of physical activity in the population studied. The SQUASH has practical advantages in terms of convenience of administration, but its usefulness in estimating physical activity is limited.     

Self-presentation in exercise: Changes over a 12-week cardiovascular programme for overweight and obese sedentary females

Abstract

Self-presentational concerns, shown to influence exercise-related cognitions and behaviours, are evaluated frequently in the absence of exercise or following a single bout of physical activity. The purpose of the present study was to examine longitudinally, the extent to which participating in a structured 12-week cardiovascular exercise intervention elicited changes in self-presentational efficacy expectancy (SPEE) and social physique anxiety (SPA). Participants were 80 sedentary women with overweight or obesity (mean body mass index 29.02 kg/m², SD=4.71) between the ages of 19 and 45 wanting to begin an exercise programme (mean age 33.4 years, SD=7.6). The Self-Presentational Efficacy Scale (SPES) and the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) were completed by each participant prior to commencing the study, and at the 6- and 12-week time points. For those who completed the programme, repeated measures ANOVAs indicated significant increases in SPEE between baseline and week 6 (P<0.001, η²=0.37), and week 6 to 12 (P<0.05, η²=0.10), while SPA decreased significantly between baseline and week 6 (P<0.01, η²=0.16). Bivariate correlation analyses revealed that length of participation in the study was positively related to SPEE and negatively related to SPA. Implications of focusing on these variables within a physical activity intervention are discussed with respect to exercise behaviour, programme development and adherence.     

Do physical activity beliefs differ by age and gender?

Age and gender are consistently related to physical activity (PA), yet theoretical explanation for these associations is scant. The present study compared the mean values and correlations of a population sample, divided by gender and age group, with respect to theory of planned behavior beliefs (behavioral, normative, and control) and PA. Participants were a sample (N=6,739) of adults (M age=49.65, SD=16.04) who completed measures of social and health demographics, theory of planned behavior beliefs, and self-reported PA. Mean analyses identified greater perceived control over PA for seniors than for young and middle-aged adults (N>.025). Belief-behavior correlations, however, were not different across age and gender in 24 of 26 tests (q<.19). Thus, PA beliefs are invariant across age and gender with the exception of mean levels of perceived control, which are lower among younger adults than older adults. Factors such as early parenthood and career demands were considered the likely reasons for differences. Overall, the evidence suggests that adapting theoretical models for specific age groups or based on gender may not be necessary.     

The key to success in elite athletes? Explicit and implicit motor learning in youth elite and non-elite soccer players

In sports, fast and accurate execution of movements is required. It has been shown that implicitly learned movements might be less vulnerable than explicitly learned movements to stressful and fast changing circumstances that exist at the elite sports level. The present study provides insight in explicit and implicit motor learning in youth soccer players with different expertise levels. Twenty-seven youth elite soccer players and 25 non-elite soccer players (aged 10–12) performed a serial reaction time task (SRTT). In the SRTT, one of the sequences must be learned explicitly, the other was implicitly learned. No main effect of group was found for implicit and explicit learning on mean reaction time (MRT) and accuracy. However, for MRT, an interaction was found between learning condition, learning phase and group. Analyses showed no group effects for the explicit learning condition, but youth elite soccer players showed better learning in the implicit learning condition. In particular, during implicit motor learning youth elite soccer showed faster MRTs in the early learning phase and earlier reached asymptote performance in terms of MRT. Present findings may be important for sports because children with superior implicit learning abilities in early learning phases may be able to learn more (durable) motor skills in a shorter time period as compared to other children.     

Framing bodies of knowledge within the ‘acoustics’ of the school: exploring pedagogical transition through newly qualified Physical Education teacher experiences

This article explores the sociological dynamics of pedagogic transition that occur with the passage of newly qualified teachers (NQTs) of Physical Education (PE) into their first posts. It draws its empirical illustration from life history and ethnographic data collected in 2006, from two first-post NQT status PE teachers with contrasting experiences, Pete and Jayne (pseudonyms). In approaching this task, we utilise the influential theoretical frameworks forwarded by Basil Bernstein and Pierre Bourdieu in a collaborative rather than an oppositional manner. More specifically, by viewing Bernstein's discursive codes and code modalities as embedded in the body through the use of Bourdieu's habitus, we explore the metaphors of resonance and dissonance felt in relation to the ‘school acoustic’ that occurred through the interplay of strong and weak framing for these individuals. In the two contrasting cases presented, Pete experienced explicit support through strong framing of performance codes and as a consequence found an explicit resonance between these and his own habitus. He quickly negotiated his identity and began reproducing existing pedagogy and discourses. In the second case, Jayne experienced implicit support through the weak framing of valued discursive codes. Consequently, she was forced to draw on her habitus in uncertain ways and oriented towards perfection codes and innovative practices. However, gradually she found her habitus to be dissonant with the perfection code modalities dominating the acoustics of the school and subsequently left the institution. The article reflects on the potential for furthering a principled collaboration of Bernstein and Bourdieu's concepts in the manner undertaken here. It concludes by highlighting the possible uses of such a perspective for helping NQTs entering PE and for schools accepting these teachers.     

Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches

The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9–12 years (M?=?9.74, SD?=?0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n?=?13), Errorless Low-Ability (n?=?11), Errorful High-Ability (n?=?10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n?=?11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities.     

师范类体育教育专业面临的问题及今后发展趋势研究

通过整理近年来国内外关于内隐自尊的研究成果，从内隐自尊和外显自尊的关系、内隐自尊的应用性研究、内隐自尊的稳定性、内隐自尊测量方法的理论基础．测量方法的信效度比较以及照片启动方法6个方面来讨论内隐自尊的内涵，认为：（1）内隐自尊与外显自尊的关系受第三变量调节；（2）考察内隐自尊对焦虑、幸福感甚至行为的预测效度时，还应考虑内隐自尊与外显自尊的关系对被预测变量的影响；（3）内隐自尊稳定性受到时间、情绪体验和个人差异的影响；（4）在遇到与自己相关的刺激物时，反应时未必短。     

Evaluating the evidence for implicit perceptual learning: a re-analysis of Farrow and Abernethy (2002)

I present a re-analysis of the data from Farrow and Abernethy's (2002) study of implicit perceptual training in tennis. I argue that there are several weaknesses and mistakes in the original analysis, which, when rectified, lead to a fundamentally different set of conclusions to those given in the original paper. Specifically, there are significant group differences in anticipatory performance before the intervention that make subsequent between-group comparisons at specific occlusion points problematic. Second, in contrast to what is reported in the original paper, the explicit learning intervention resulted in a significant improvement in performance. In addition, a comparison of the effects of the different interventions indicates that the placebo group demonstrated the largest mean improvement in anticipation for the four occlusion points up to racquet-ball impact. Third, the non-significant change in performance over a 32-day retention period indicates that any improvements in performance were retained, not lost, over this period of time. Following a re-analysis of the original data, I conclude that Farrow and Abernethy's study provides no evidence that an implicit perceptual training paradigm improves anticipatory performance more than either an explicit learning paradigm or, indeed, an intervention involving mere observation of tennis matches.     

Affect and prefrontal hemodynamics during exercise under immersive audiovisual stimulation: Improving the experience of exercise for overweight adults

ObjectiveResearch on methods of improving the affective experience of exercise remains limited, especially for low-active overweight adults. We investigated the effectiveness of a virtual-reality headset and headphones in improving affective responses over conventionally delivered audiovisual stimulation.MethodsLow-active, overweight adults (16 women, 5 men; age: 34.67 ± 9.62 years; body mass index: 28.56 ± 4.95 kg/m²; peak oxygen uptake for men: 29.14 ± 6.56 mL/kg/min, for women: 22.67 ± 4.52 mL/kg/min, mean ± SD) completed 15-min sessions of recumbent cycling at the ventilatory threshold: (a) high immersion (HI, virtual reality headset and headphones), (b) low immersion (LI, television screen and speakers), and (c) Control. During-exercise pleasure and post-exercise enjoyment were self-reported. Oxygenation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) was assessed with near infrared spectroscopy.ResultsHigher pleasure was reported during HI than during LI and Control (Condition × Time interaction; p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.43). Participants who reported a preference for low exercise intensity showed higher dlPFC oxygenation during Control, but this difference diminished during LI and HI (Condition × Time × Preference interaction; p = 0.036, η_p² = 0.10).ConclusionCompared with conventionally delivered audiovisual stimulation, using a virtual-reality headset strengthens the dissociative effect, further improving affective responses to exercise at the ventilatory threshold among overweight, low-active adults. Presumably by competing with interoceptive afferents at the level of sensory input, audiovisual stimulation may lessen reliance on cognitive efforts to attenuate declining affect, as indicated by lower right dlPFC activity, particularly among participants disinclined toward high exercise intensity.