Performance analysis in football: A critical review and implications for future research

Abstract

This paper critically reviews existing literature relating to performance analysis (PA) in football, arguing that an alternative approach is warranted. The paper considers the applicability of variables analysed along with research findings in the context of their implications for professional practice. This includes a review of methodological approaches commonly adopted throughout PA research, including a consideration of the nature and size of the samples used in relation to generalisability. Definitions and classifications of variables used within performance analysis are discussed in the context of reliability and validity. The contribution of PA findings to the field is reviewed. The review identifies an overemphasis on researching predictive and performance controlling variables. A different approach is proposed that works with and from performance analysis information to develop research investigating athlete and coach learning, thus adding to applied practice. Future research should pay attention to the social and cultural influences that impact PA delivery and athlete learning in applied settings.     

Sand training: a review of current research and practical applications

Abstract

Sand surfaces can offer a higher energy cost (EC) and lower impact training stimulus compared with firmer and more traditional team sport training venues such as grass. This review aims to summarise the existing research on sand training, with a specific focus on its application as a team sports training venue. Compared with grass, significant physiological and biomechanical differences are associated with sand exercise. However, evidence also exists to suggest that training adaptations unique to sand can positively influence firm-ground performance. Furthermore, the lower impact forces experienced on sand can limit muscle damage, muscle soreness, and decrements in performance capacity relative to exercise intensity. Therefore, using a sand training surface in team sports may allow greater training adaptations to be achieved, while reducing performance decrements and injuries that may arise from heavy training. Nevertheless, further research should investigate the effect of sand surfaces over a greater range of training types and performance outcomes, to increase the application of sand training for team sports.     

Chronic participation in externally paced,but not self-paced sports is associated with the modulation of domain-general cognition

Abstract

The present study investigated the role of chronic sport participation in the modulation of vigilance and inhibitory control. We also aimed to disentangle the relative contribution of different types of sport expertise and sport-related fitness to the exercise-cognition relationship. Three groups of young adults differing in their chronic sport expertise (externally-paced sports, n?=?22, self-paced sports, n?=?22, non-athletes, n?=?22) took part in the study. Participants completed a cardiovascular fitness test, a hand-eye coordination test and two different types of vigilance tasks: (1) Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) and (2) Oddball Task, which were designed to gain insight into the cognitive processes involved in sustaining attention over time and allocating selective attention by exerting inhibitory control, respectively. No differences were found in PVT performance between the two athlete groups and between self-paced sports athletes and non-athletes, whereas athletes from externally-paced sports outperformed non-athletes. Crucially, athletes from externally-paced sports also differed from those of self-paced sports and non-athletes in the Oddball task, showing less omission and commission errors. The sport expertise effect was independent of participant’s cardiovascular fitness while hand-eye coordination modulated vigilance and inhibitory control performance. Our findings add novel empirical evidence to the role of expertise in cognitively demanding sports as an important factor in the relationship between exercise and cognition.     

Quantifying instantaneous performance in alpine ski racing

Abstract

Alpine ski racing is a popular sport in many countries and a lot of research has gone into optimising athlete performance. Two factors influence athlete performance in a ski race: speed and the chosen path between the gates. However, to date there is no objective, quantitative method to determine instantaneous skiing performance that takes both of these factors into account. The purpose of this short communication was to define a variable quantifying instantaneous skiing performance and to study how this variable depended on the skiers' speed and on their chosen path. Instantaneous skiing performance was defined astime loss per elevation difference dt/dz, which depends on the skier's speed v(z), and the distance travelled per elevation difference ds/dz. Using kinematic data collected in an earlier study, it was evaluated how these variables can be used to assess the individual performance of six ski racers in two slalom turns. The performance analysis conducted in this study might be a useful tool not only for athletes and coaches preparing for competition, but also for sports scientists investigating skiing techniques or engineers developing and testing skiing equipment.     

Tanking,Shirking, and Running Dead: The Role of Economics and Large Data Sets in Identifying Competition Corruption and its Causes

Abstract

This paper will offer an economic history perspective on match-fixing based on economic models which explain corruption as a rational decision-making process in which a potentially corrupt athlete weighs up various probabilities. Examples will be taken from sport worldwide including American college sports, NBA basketball, British horseracing, Australian Rules football, and sumo wrestling in Japan where large databases of actual results over time have allowed possible patterns of match-fixing (as opposed to individual instances) to be identified by the use of probability theory.     

From childhood to senior professional football: elite youth players’ engagement in non-football activities

Abstract

Despite the large amount of research available on how engagement in football practice relates to future performance level among football players, similar information about the contribution of non-football activities is scarce. Based on data from 745 elite youth players this study aimed to identify the characteristics and contribution of diverse participation towards elite youth and senior professional status. The data were collected using a retrospective questionnaire where the players reported the amount of time spent in other sports than football, in addition to their perceived contribution of different non-football activities for developing football skills. The accumulated hours of time spent in other sports of players who had obtained a senior professional contract were compared to non-professional players, using multilevel modelling (n = 558), while a t-test compared the activity ratings to each other. No significant differences were identified between professional and non-professional players’ engagement history, but overall, the players rated sports similar to football to be significantly more relevant for developing football skills than other sports. The results suggests that spending time in non-football activities did not contribute to present differences in performance attainment in football, but also that potential advantages of such activities may be related to their characteristics.     

优秀武术运动员个性特征初步研究

个性是个体的心理倾向性和品质的组合,它决定着个体的活动和行为方式,同样影响或决定着运动员在技术方面的表现和今后发展。对运动员的个性心理特征研究是运动心理学研究的重要内容之一,已成为我国运动心理学领域中的热点。本文采用卡特尔16项个性因素量表对运动员个体进行了个性特征的调查研究,表明了优秀武术男运动员在聪慧性（B）、有恒性（G）、敏感性（I）等因素表现为高分特征,在独立性（Q2）因素表现为低分特征,优秀武术女运动员在聪慧性（B）、自制性（Q3）因素表现为高分特征,在稳定性（C）、实验性（Q1）等因素表现为低分特征。这为今后武术运动员的心理选材、科学训练提供了参考的心理依据。     

我国竞技体育科研发展现状探析

对90年代以来,我国竞技体育科研的发展状况进行了分析。研究认为:随着“科教兴体”战略的提出与贯彻,我国竞技体育科研水平不断提高,竞技体育科研投入逐渐加大,科技成果的转化速度不断提高,竞技体育中科技含量不断增加。当前,我国竞技体育的科技含量仍较低,科研管理体制及运行机制依然不畅、低水平重复交叉研究现象突出,科技管理体制改革任务依然艰巨。     

从儿少身体素质的角度探析竞技散打的早期训练

文章运用文献资料法、观察法、数理统计等研究方法,分析了当前儿童少年散打运动员早期训练的研究成果,统计出了儿童少年在不同年龄阶段身体素质发展的敏感期和特点,及整个少年期的发展规律,并运用运动生理学、运动训练学等学科知识,结合当前散打运动早期训练的经验总结,得出了儿童少年早期训练应以散打运动的基本动作为主,结合各种体育项目或各种身体练习方法,使儿童少年散打运动员的反应、速度、柔韧等身体素质得到全面的提高与发展。     

An elite endurance athlete's recovery from underperformance aided by a multidisciplinary sport science support team

Abstract

Overload training resulting in an overreached state is common in elite sports, and if undetected can develop into an overtraining syndrome. This risk is accentuated by the lack of reliable measures of overreaching. Coaches and scientists therefore have to use a combination of tests in the monitoring process. This article presents a case study of the recovery from underperformance of a young elite endurance athlete and the work of a multidisciplinary sport science support team. When it was determined that the athlete's performance had deteriorated, and that this was due solely to the stress of training, training load was radically reduced for a period of 14 days. A combination of physiological, biochemical, and psychological measurements were then used to monitor the recovery process. The purpose of this article is to describe how coaches and sport science teams can help in monitoring training and recovery in practical settings, allowing detection of the early signs of overreaching before a more serious overtraining syndrome develops.     

Feasibility of eyes open alpha power training for mental enhancement in elite gymnasts

Abstract

This study focuses on a novel, easy to use and instruction-less method for mental training in athletes. Previous findings suggest that particular mental capacities are needed for achieving peak performance; including attentional control, focus, relaxation and positive affect. Electroencephalography (EEG) alpha brain activity has been associated with neural inhibition during processes of selective attention, for improving efficiency in information processing. Here we hypothesised that eyes open alpha power training by music teaches athletes to (1) learn to self-regulate their brain activity, and (2) learn to increase their baseline alpha power, herewith improving mental capacities such as focusing the allocation of attention. The study was double-blind and placebo-controlled. Twelve elite gymnasts were either given eyes open alpha power training or random beta power training (controls). Results indicate small improvements in sleep quality, mental and physical shape. In our first attempt at getting a grip on mental capacities in athletes, we think this novel training method can be promising. Because gymnastics is one of the most mentally demanding sports, we value even small benefits for the athlete and consider them indicative for future research.     

Coaching competency and satisfaction with the coach: A multi-level structural equation model

Abstract

The purpose of this initial predictive validity study was to determine the ability of measures derived from the Athletes' Perceptions of Coaching Competency Scale II – High School Teams (APCCS II-HST) to predict satisfaction with the head coach. Specification of the statistical model was informed by the mediational model of coach–athlete interactions. The technical quality of the satisfaction measure was evaluated before testing the predictive validity of the coaching competency measures. Data were collected from athletes of seven sports. Athlete observations (N = 748) were clustered within teams (G = 74). Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) provided evidence for factorial invariance of a reduced version of the satisfaction measure by athlete gender. Multi-level CFA provided evidence of model–data consistency for a reduced version of the satisfaction measure. Multi-level structural equation modelling provided evidence for the ability of latent coaching competency to positively predict latent satisfaction at both the athlete level (technique competency and motivation competency) and the team level (coaching competency) and for close model–data fit. Implications of this study include: that the APCCS II-HST should be viewed as a replacement for the Coaching Competency Scale when the intended population is appropriate; a preliminary multi-level measurement model for satisfaction with one's coach that should be considered as a potential starting point in subsequent studies; and empirical support for a key relationship proposed in the mediational model of coach–athlete interactions.     

Vielseitigkeit als Ausbildungsstrategie im leistungssportlichen Nachwuchstraining

This paper presents an excerpt from a comprehensive study on the concepts of long-term athlete development. Following a qualitative research methodology and using a hermeneutic-reconstructive procedure the purpose of this paper was to gain insight into expert youth sports coaches’ understanding of the two main trajectories leading to elite performance: early specialization and early sampling. Analysis of the transcribed interviews suggests that the training strategy is primarily the result of a complex decision making process. Additionally, coaches perceived a trend towards early specialization which conflicts with existing considerations of long-term athlete development. The results of this study provide an opportunity to understand the subject of diversification in youth sports and to raise awareness for the problems of practitioners.     

The use of the Vienna Test System in sport psychology research: A review

ABSTRACT

This article seeks to provide a comprehensive review of existing literature relating to the use of the Vienna Test System (VTS) in sport psychology research. A comprehensive search of major databases such as SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar yielded 22 studies related to the topic of interest. The results showed that VTS was used to compare athletes and non-athletes, as well as athletes from different sports and levels. It was also used to investigate the effect of certain factors on athlete cognitive performance, to induce ego depletion in athletes, and was shown to be a reliable and valid measure of coordinated motor abilities. The review demonstrates that VTS is a useful objective measure of various psychological constructs, and can be used to complement existing subjective measures in the field. There is great potential in using VTS to provide both researchers and applied sport psychologists with valuable information to aid them in their work with athletes, and future research should aim to identify VTS tests that are relevant to each particular sport.     

The myth of the team captain as principal leader: extending the athlete leadership classification within sport teams

Abstract

Although coaches and players recognise the importance of leaders within the team, research on athlete leadership is sparse. The present study expands knowledge of athlete leadership by extending the current leadership classification and exploring the importance of the team captain as formal leader of the team. An online survey was completed by 4,451 participants (31% females and 69% males) within nine different team sports in Flanders (Belgium). Players (N = 3,193) and coaches (N = 1,258) participated on all different levels in their sports. Results revealed that the proposed additional role of motivational leader was perceived as clearly distinct from the already established roles (task, social and external leader). Furthermore, almost half of the participants (44%) did not perceive their captain as the principal leader on any of the four roles. These findings underline the fact that the leadership qualities attributed to the captain as the team’s formal leader are overrated. It can be concluded that leadership is spread throughout the team; informal leaders rather than the captain take the lead, both on and off the field.     

影响我国高水平田径训练管理的若干关系

运用逻辑分析等研究方法对影响我国高水平田径训练管理因素进行研究,结果表明：田径运动是竞技体育的基础项目,其高水平（国家队）训练阶段的团队管理工作将直接影响我国田径运动水平的发展与提高。建议我国高水平田径训练管理工作中应正确处理以下七方面关系：管理与服务的关系、训练与科研的关系、训练与比赛的关系、整体提高与重点突破的关系、竞技体育＂三化＂与训练管理的关系、社会效益与经济效益的关系、外部环境与内部条件的关系。     

影响我国女子铅球运动员运动成绩的主要身体素质及评价标准的研究

以我国6 2名女子铅球运动员为研究对象,运用文献资料调研、调查访问、测量、实验和数理统计等方法,以两轮特尔菲法征询专家的初选指标为基础,并结合统计学的定量筛选方法,最后确定10项身体素质指标为测试指标。通过测试、问卷调查及文献资料调研和网络的途径获得原始数据后,运用聚类分析及各指标与专项成绩的相关程度,确定了典型指标,并最终建立了评价体系。该评价体系可为教练员制定训练计划、控制训练过程和预测成绩及选拔运动员提供参考依据。     

Coaching Efficacy,Player Perceptions of Coaches’ Leadership Styles,and Team Performance in Premier League Soccer

The coaching competency research has demonstrated the role of coaching efficacy and coaching behaviors on various athlete outcomes. However, athlete perceptions of these relationships and how they affect performance are less understood. Purpose: This study examined if coaching efficacy is predictive of player perceptions of coaches’ leadership styles, team atmosphere, and team performance in a soccer season. Method: Fifteen male premier league soccer coaches (M_age = 45.27, SD = 6.07) and 226 players (M_age = 25.66, SD = 3.96) from Botswana participated in the study. All participants completed a background information questionnaire. Coaches completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale. Players rated their coaches’ leadership styles using the Revised Leadership Scale for Sports as well as team atmosphere. Team performance was based on position in the league log and player ratings of the teams’ performance. Results: Findings showed that coaches’ self-ratings on technique efficacy predicted player perceptions of the coaches’ use of all six leadership styles. Game strategy efficacy predicted higher team atmosphere and team performance. Motivation efficacy was not significantly associated with player perceptions of the coaches’ use of any of the leadership styles, while character building efficacy was negatively associated with the various leadership styles. Conclusion: Findings provide support to previous research evidence linking higher coaching efficacy, leadership styles, and team outcomes. The study expands the emergent research within the coaching competency literature that examines player perceptions of coaches’ behaviors and leadership styles.