Fundamental movement skills and weight status in British primary school children

Abstract

Weight status has been shown to have a negative impact on children's competence in performing fundamental movement skills (FMSs). Following ethics approval and informed consent, 281 children in years 2–6 from a school in central England volunteered to participate. Each child performed eight FMSs (run, hop, gallop, jump, balance, kick, throw and catch) three times, all attempts were video-recorded. Video analysis was performed (Quintic Biomechanics software) using the Process Orient Checklist (subjective measurement). Height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI) and weight status was determined. Results highlighted that year group (age) had a significant effect on seven out of the eight skills (not kick). Year 4 (aged 8–9 years) significantly scored lower in all three locomotor skills (run, hop and gallop) at this age, whereas Year 5 (aged 9–10 years) all significantly peaked at the object control skills (catch and throw) at this age. Weight status (BMI) significantly affected the run, identifying that a child with a larger BMI will have a lower mastery level of the run. Gender significantly affected the kick, throw and balance, with girls outperforming in the balance and the boys in the kick and throw. By highlighting that children at different ages will have a lower score in different skills, the effect of BMI and gender on certain FMS is important knowledge for the target of intervention in primary school children.     

The Reliability of Distance Run Tests for Children in Grades K—4

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine test–retest reliability for the 1-mile, 3/4-mile, and 1/2-mile distance run/walk tests for children in Grades K—4. Fifty-one intact physical education classes were randomly assigned to one of the three distance run conditions. A total of 1,229 (621 boys, 608 girls) complied the test–retests in the fall (October), with 1,050 of these students (543 boys, 507 girls) repeating the tests in the spring (May). Results indicated that the 1-mile run/walk distance, as recommended for young children in most national test batteries, has acceptable intraclass reliability (.83 < R < .90) for both boys and girls in Grades 3 and 4, has minimal (fall) to acceptable (spring) reliability for Grade 2 students (.70 < R < .83), but is not reliable for children in Grades K and 1 (.34 < R < .56). The 1/2 mile was the only distance meeting minimal reliability standards for boys and girls in Grades K and 1 (.73 < R < .82). Results also indicated that reliability estimates remained fairly stable across gender and age groups from the fall to spring testing periods, with the exception of the noticeably improved values for Grade 2 students on the 1-mile run/walk test. Criterion-referenced reliability (P, percent agreement) was also estimated relative to Physical Best and Fitnessgram run/walk standards. Reliability coefficients for all age group standards were acceptable to high (.70 < P < .95), except for Fitnessgram standards for 5-year-old girls on the 1-mile test for both fall and spring and for 6-year-old boys and girls on the 1-mile test administered in the spring.     

Comparison of performance on process- and product-oriented assessments of fundamental motor skills across childhood

Process-oriented motor competence (MC) assessments evaluate how a movement is performed. Product-oriented assessments evaluate the outcome of a movement. Determining the concurrent validity of process and product assessments is important to address the predictive utility of motor competence for health. The current study aimed to: (1) compare process and product assessments of the standing long jump, hop and throw across age groups and (2) determine the capacity of process assessments to classify levels of MC. Participants included 170 children classified into three age groups: 4–5, 7–8 and 10–11 years old. Participants’ skills were examined concurrently using three process assessments ((Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition [TGMD-2]), Get Skilled; Get Active, and developmental sequences) and one product measure (throw speed, jump and hop distance). Results indicate moderate to strong correlations between (1) process assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .37–70) and (2) process and product assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .26–.88). In general, sensitivity to detect advanced skill level is lowest for TGMD-2 and highest for developmental sequences for all three skills. The use of process and product assessments is suggested to comprehensively capture levels of MC in human movement.     

Bringing objectivity to motor skill assessment in children

ABSTRACT

The study purpose was to use Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) to objectively assess children’s motor competence in seven movement skills. Fourteen children aged from seven to 12 years (M = 9.64) participated. Children were asked to perform up to 10 trials of each skill. Children performed the skills, which were captured by XSENS MVN Awinda wireless motion capture, and video. Skills were assessed from video as per the criteria from the Test of Gross Motor Development 3. Initially, 17 IMU sensors were used for signal processing, but this was restricted to four sensors (wrists and ankles) to be more feasible for field assessment. Results of the signal testing against its modelled “Good” signal, showed the skip was classified correctly each time, as was the sidestep. Accuracy % rates for each skill were: kick (95.2), catch (95.0), throw (80.5), jump (78.9), and hop (76.9). Using signal processing-based methods via four sensors was a reliable and feasible way to assess seven motor skills in children. This approach means monitoring and assessment of children’s skills can be objective, which will potentially reduce the time involved in motor skill assessment and analysis for research, clinical, sport and education purposes.     

‘Sportmotorische Bestandesaufnahme’: Criterion- vs. norm-based reference values of fitness tests for Swiss first grade children

Abstract

Health is closely linked to physical activity and fitness. It is therefore important to monitor fitness in children. Although many reports on physical tests have been published, data comparison between studies is an issue. This study reports Swiss first grade norm values of fitness tests and compares these with criterion reference data. A total of 10,565 boys (7.18 ± 0.42 years) and 10,204 girls (7.14 ± 0.41 years) were tested for standing long jump, plate tapping, 20-m shuttle run, lateral jump and 20-m sprint. Average values for six-, seven- and eight-year-olds were analysed and reference curves for age were constructed. Z-values were generated for comparisons with criterion references reported in the literature. Results were better for all disciplines in seven-year-old first grade children compared to six-year-old children (p < 0.01). Eight-year-old children did not perform better compared to seven-year-old children in the sprint run (p = 0.11), standing long jump (p > 0.99) and shuttle run (p = 0.43), whereas they were better in all other disciplines compared to their younger peers. The average performance of boys was better than girls except for tapping at the age of 8 (p = 0.06). Differences in performance due to testing protocol and setting must be considered when test values from a first grade setting are compared to criterion-based benchmarks. In a classroom setting, younger children tended to have better results and older children tended to have worse outcomes when compared to their age group criterion reference values. Norm reference data are valid allowing comparison with other data generated by similar test protocols applied in a classroom setting.     

From the field of play to the laboratory: Recreating the demands of competition with augmented reality simulated sport

ABSTRACT

Biomechanical analysis has typically been confined to a laboratory setting. While attempts have been made to take laboratory testing into the field, this study was designed to assess whether augmented reality (AR) could be used to bring the field into the laboratory. This study aimed to measure knee load in volleyball players through a jump task incorporating AR while maintaining the perception-action couplings by replicating the visual features of a volleyball court. Twelve male volleyball athletes completed four tasks: drop landing, hop jump, spike jump, and spike jump while wearing AR smart glasses. Biomechanical variables included patellar tendon force, knee moment and kinematics of the ankle, knee, hip, pelvis and thorax. The drop landing showed differences in patellar tendon force and knee moment when compared to the other conditions. The hop jump did not present differences in kinetics when compared to the spike conditions, instead of displaying the greatest kinematic differences. As a measure of patellar tendon loading the AR condition showed a close approximation to the spike jump, with no differences present when comparing landing forces and mechanics. Thus, AR may be used in a clinical assessment to better replicate information from the competitive environment.     

For Young Jumpers,Differences are in the Movement's Control,Not its Coordination

Abstract

Previous research on the development of jumping has indicated that the coordination of the jump is stable from its inception, but that individual differences lie in the control of the task. The purpose of this study was to examine control in the vertical jump as performed by novice jumpers. Two groups of children who varied in their ability to regulate the takeoff angle were compared on measures of coordination and control. The children's groups were also compared to a group of skilled adults. Both children's groups demonstrated temporal coordination patterns comparable to the adult pattern, though the children were distinguished from the adults on selected spatial (control) measures. The results indicate that a mature pattern of coordination for the jump exists at the earliest stages of the behavior's appearance in the movement repertoire. The novice, however, lacks the ability to precisely control, or tune, the movement to task demands.     

The Role of Interference and Task Similarity on the Acquisition,Retention, and Transfer of Simple Motor Skills

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to determine if two levels of task similarity influenced acquisition, retention, and transfer performance of three simple motor skills. Sixty right-handed subjects were randomly assigned to one of five (n = 12) experimental conditions. Each subject performed 72 trials during acquisition. Twenty-four trials were recorded for each movement task. Following a 5-min unfilled retention interval, subjects performed 4 trials on each task before completing 12 transfer trials of a novel movement. Contextual interference effects for acquisition and retention were supported for low but not high similarity tasks. Further, the results suggest that a different memory representation exists for high and low similarity tasks.     

Cross-sectional and longitudinal relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in Japanese adolescents

Abstract

Although cross-sectional studies regarding the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement among Japanese children have been previously reported, no longitudinal study has yet been reported for Japanese children. The purpose of this study was to examine the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between physical fitness and academic achievement among Japanese adolescents. This cohort study included 1,189 seventh- and ninth-grade students from two schools. The follow-up period was 2 years. A physical fitness test involving eight test items (hand grip, sit-ups, sit and reach, side-to-side jump, 20-m shuttle run, 50-m dash, standing broad jump and handball throwing) was conducted to evaluate the fitness of the participants. Academic achievement in Japanese, mathematics and a foreign language (English) was assessed at baseline and follow-up using cumulative guidance records. Participants were classified into low–low, high–low, low–high, and high–high groups based on physical fitness test results at baseline and follow-up. Compared with the groups showing low fitness levels, those showing high fitness levels for all items of the physical fitness test expect handball throwing had increased odds of showing high academic achievement levels in all three subjects at baseline and/or follow-up compared with the low-fitness groups. Sit-ups and 20-m shuttle run in the high–high and low–high groups were related to higher academic achievement levels at follow-up compared with those in the low–low group for both boys and girls. Therefore, this study suggests that various physical fitness outcomes are positively associated with high academic achievement levels for Japanese children.     

The Decline in American Children's Fitness Levels

Abstract

Three anthropometric and eight physical performance measures selected by the author were related by correlational methods to the performance of 87 secondary school boys in the running hop, step, and jump. All variables showed a significant relationship with the criterion beyond the .05 level of confidence. The criterion could be employed as a measure of motor ability since three of the highest single-variable correlations with the criterion were measures that are known predictors of motor ability: the running broad jump (r = .859), 50-yd. dash (r = .815), and standing broad jump (r = .778). Three selected combinations of measures yielded multiple correlations with the criterion which were significant beyond the .01 level of confidence. A regression equation developed from the optimal set of variables that was considered to be feasible for administration in school systems consisted of two items from the Youth Fitness Test Manual: the standing broad jump and the 50-yd. dash.     

Validity and Reliability of Proximity Detection with Bluetooth-Enabled Accelerometers among Adults

ABSTRACT

Introduction: This study examined the concurrent validity and inter-pair reliability of the proximity detection function on Bluetooth-enabled accelerometers across manufacturer-specified ranges. If valid, this method could be used for objectively measuring shared physical activity participation. Method: Thirty-six dyads aged 21.6 (2.1) years wore two sets of Bluetooth-enabled accelerometers initialized as beacons and receivers to compare accelerometer-measured proximity detection to direct observation under 11 different controlled and free-living conditions. Results: The proportion of minutes in which proximity was detected differed across conditions (p < .001), with the highest proportions in the controlled conditions (.77–1.0). Among the free-living conditions, the different room (.73 ± .20) condition had the highest proximity detection proportions. There were no differences in the proximity detection across accelerometer pairs (p = .265). Conclusion: Proximity detection with Bluetooth-enabled accelerometers was reliable and had the highest detection rates under the controlled treadmill walking conditions. Despite limitations, using Bluetooth-enabled accelerometers is a promising approach for measuring shared physical activity.     

Intensity-level assessment of lower body plyometric exercises based on mechanical output of lower limb joints

Abstract

The present study aimed to quantify the intensity of lower extremity plyometric exercises by determining joint mechanical output. Ten men (age, 27.3 ± 4.1 years; height, 173.6 ± 5.4 cm; weight, 69.4 ± 6.0 kg; 1-repetition maximum [1RM] load in back squat 118.5 ± 12.0 kg) performed the following seven plyometric exercises: two-foot ankle hop, repeated squat jump, double-leg hop, depth jumps from 30 and 60 cm, and single-leg and double-leg tuck jumps. Mechanical output variables (torque, angular impulse, power, and work) at the lower limb joints were determined using inverse-dynamics analysis. For all measured variables, ANOVA revealed significant main effects of exercise type for all joints (P < 0.05) along with significant interactions between joint and exercise (P < 0.01), indicating that the influence of exercise type on mechanical output varied among joints. Paired comparisons revealed that there were marked differences in mechanical output at the ankle and hip joints; most of the variables at the ankle joint were greatest for two-foot ankle hop and tuck jumps, while most hip joint variables were greatest for repeated squat jump or double-leg hop. The present results indicate the necessity for determining mechanical output for each joint when evaluating the intensity of plyometric exercises.     

The influence of wearing compression stockings on performance indicators and physiological responses following a prolonged trail running exercise

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of wearing compression socks (CS) on performance indicators and physiological responses during prolonged trail running. Eleven trained runners completed a 15.6 km trail run at a competition intensity whilst wearing or not wearing CS. Counter movement jump, maximal voluntary contraction and the oxygenation profile of vastus lateralis muscle using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) method were measured before and following exercise. Run time, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration and ratings of perceived exertion were evaluated during the CS and non-CS sessions. No significant difference in any dependent variables was observed during the run sessions. Run times were 5681.1±503.5 and 5696.7±530.7 s for the non-CS and CS conditions, respectively. The relative intensity during CS and non-CS runs corresponded to a range of 90.5–91.5% HR_max. Although NIRS measurements such as muscle oxygen uptake and muscle blood flow significantly increased following exercise (+57.7% and + 42.6%,+59.2% and + 32.4%, respectively for the CS and non-CS sessions, P<0.05), there was no difference between the run conditions. The findings suggest that competitive runners do not gain any practical or physiological benefits from wearing CS during prolonged off-road running.     

Fundamental movement skill proficiency amongst adolescent youth

Background: Literature suggests that physical education programmes ought to provide intense instruction towards basic movement skills needed to enjoy a variety of physical activities. Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are basic observable patterns of behaviour present from childhood to adulthood (e.g. run, skip and kick). Recent evidence indicates that children have the developmental potential to master most FMS by 6 years of age during physical education, physical activity (PA) and sport.

Purpose: With a noticeable absence in the literature relating to adolescent movement patterns, the present study assessed the performance of 9 FMS during physical education class amongst 12- to 13-year olds. The study further assessed the range of FMS at the behavioural component level with a view to identifying weaknesses within performance across individual skills.

Participants and setting: Baseline data were collected in 2010 as part of a larger longitudinal study evaluating the effectiveness of a prescribed adolescent physical education intervention. Participants included all (N?=?242) first-year post-primary youth in a specific geographical area of Ireland.

Data collection: The following 9 FMS were assessed during an 80-minute physical education lesson time period using a reliable instrument protocol; run, skip, horizontal jump, vertical jump, kick, catch, overhand throw, strike and stationary dribble. Each of the nine FMS was assessed in conjunction with the behavioural components from three established instruments, namely the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD), TGMD-2 and the Victorian Fundamental Motor Skills manual. To ensure participant consistency, no feedback from any of the trained field staff was given during skill performance.

Data analysis: Prior to data analysis, the trained field staff were required to reach a minimum of 95% inter-observer agreement for all nine skills on a pre-coded data set to ensure that all testers were competent. The FMS data set was analysed using SPSS version 17.0 for Windows using appropriate statistical analysis.

Findings: Overall, 11% was scored as either mastery or near mastery for all nine FMS. There was a significant difference in the overall mean composite FMS score (object control and locomotor) between genders, with adolescent males scoring higher (p?=?.015). There were marked differences in the number of participants who failed to obtain mastery level across the range of the nine FMS (e.g. vertical jump 87% and run 13%) and their associated behavioural components.

Conclusions: It is alarming that adolescents aged between 12 and 13 years entering their first year of post-primary physical education do not display proficiency across nine basic movement patterns. This finding indicates that adolescents may have a difficult time in making the successful transition towards more advanced skills within the sport-specific stage. Implications from this study potentially indicate that targeting the weakest skill components during physical education and outside of school hours may prove a valuable strategy in increasing the current FMS levels and the subsequent PA levels amongst adolescent youth.     

Initial steps in creating a developmentally valid tool for observing/assessing rope jumping

Background: Valid motor development sequences show the various behaviors that children display as they progress toward competence in specific motor skills. Teachers can use these sequences to observe informally or formally assess their students. While longitudinal study is ultimately required to validate developmental sequences, there are earlier, pre-longitudinal steps that can be used to screen hypothesized sequences to see if they are worthy of the time and expense of longitudinal study. These same steps can also provide teachers with preliminary tools for observation/assessment. Purpose: At the request of physical educators in a midwestern suburb in the United States, the investigators screened developmental sequences for the action of arms and legs in self-turned rope jumping. The goal was to create a preliminary assessment tool that could be used in physical education classes. Participants: The physical educators took videos of 216 children attempting to jump rope. The children were 5–10 years of age. Data analysis: The investigators categorized the videos using the hypothesized developmental sequences as a checklist. The incidence of each level in the sequences was then graphed to see if the percentages of occurrence rose and fell across age as would be expected if the levels were developmentally valid. The investigators also looked at whether children who varied their behavior across trials varied only to adjacent levels in the sequences. Results: Results indicated that one hypothesized arm category was not developmental, and two leg categories needed further study in younger children. Based on these results, the investigators modified the proposed sequences and provided decision rules so teachers could use them as preliminary observation/assessment tools.     

Prediction of habitual physical activity level and weight status from fundamental movement skill level

Abstract

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) have been assessed in children in order to investigate the issues of the low proportion of children who meet physical activity (PA) guidelines and rising levels of obesity. The aim of this research was to identify whether previous or current FMS level is a better predictor of PA levels and weight status in children. In January 2012 (year 1), 281 children were recruited from one primary school in the West Midlands, UK. Children performed eight FMS three times, which were videoed and assessed using a subjective checklist. Sprint speed and jump height were measured objectively. Height and mass were measured to calculate the body mass index to determine the weight status. Skinfold calliper readings were used to calculate body fat percentage. One year later, in January 2013, all these tests were repeated on the same children, with the additional collection of PA data via the use of pedometers. Following multiple linear regression, it was identified that prior mastery in FMS was a better predictor of current PA, whereas current FMS was a better predictor of current weight status. Overall, FMS mastery is needed in childhood to be able to participate in PA and maintain a healthy weight status.     

Relationship between Achievement in Reading and Achievement in Selected Motor Skills in Elementary School Children

Abstract

The study was designed to determine the relationships between achievement in reading and achievement in selected motor skills for children in grades 1, 3, 5. The Iowa tests of basic skills were used to determine reading achievement and the Johnson motor achievement battery was employed to measure achievement in selected motor skills. The Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation was applied to compute the relationships between the reading and motor achievement variables. The subjects were divided into three reading achievement levels and Scheffe's method of comparing pairs of means from a two-way analysis of variance table was employed to determine if the achievement differences in the motor skills tests were significant. The following conclusions were drawn: a) Highly significant correlations were found to exist between achievement in reading and the throw and catch test and achievement in reading and the zig-zag run test; b) Little or no consistent relationship existed between achievement in reading and the kicking test or the jump and reach test; c) Significant differences among the selected reading levels were found for the throw and catch test and the zig-zag run test; d) Few significant differences among the selected reading levels were found for the kicking test and for the jump and reach test.     

Effects of Eating a Liquid Meal at Specific Times upon Subsequent Performances in the One-Mile Run

Abstract

Using three time intervals (¹/₂ hr., 1 hr., and 2 hr.) between the eating of the liquid meal and running and for a control run (no eating 3¹/₂ to 4 hr. before running), 10 subjects each ran 10 trials for the 1-mile run. The criterion score was the mean of 10 trials for each of the three time intervals and for the control run. The analysis of data indicated that, according to the requirements of the F ratio, the consumption of the liquid meal (290 calories) ¹/₂ hr., 1 hr., or 2 hr. prior to running had no adverse effect on the running times for the 1-mile run.     

Ground Reaction Force Differences in the Countermovement Jump in Girls With Different Levels of Performance

Purpose: The aim of this study was to ascertain the biomechanical differences between better and poorer performers of the vertical jump in a homogeneous group of children. Method: Twenty-four girls were divided into low-scoring (LOW; M _age = 6.3 ± 0.8 years) and high-scoring (HIGH; M _age = 6.6 ± 0.8 years) groups based on their performance on the vertical jump. The force-, velocity-, displacement-, and rate of force development (RFD)-time curves of vertical jumps were analyzed to determine the differences between groups. Results: The analysis of the data showed differences in the pattern of the ensemble mean curves of the HIGH and LOW groups, although the majority of the differences occurred during the eccentric contraction phase of the jump. The differences in the HIGH group with respect to the LOW group were: lower force at the beginning of the movement, higher speed and RFD during the eccentric phase, high force at the beginning of the concentric phase, higher velocity during the concentric phase, and a higher position at takeoff. Conclusion: The results showed that the HIGH group achieved a higher jump height than did the LOW group by increasing the effectiveness of the countermovement and achieving a more advantageous position at takeoff.