Bidirectional relationships of physical activity and gross motor skills before and after summer break: Application of a cross-lagged panel model

Background:Gross motor skills are postulated to have a bidirectional relationship with physical activity(PA);however,no study has tested this relationship before and after a summer break.The purpose of this study was to examine the bidirectional relationships between school PA and gross motor skills in children before and after a summer break.Methods:Participants were a sample of 440 children recruited from 3 low-income schools(age=8.9±1.2 years,mean±SD).PA was assessed as average school-day step counts using Yamax DigiWalker pedometers(Yamasa Tokei Keiki,Tokyo,Japan)worn for 5 consecutive school days.Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development,3 rd edition.Data were collected at 2 timepoints:at the end of spring semester(T1)and at the beginning of the subsequent fall semester(T2).An age-and body mass index-adjusted cross-lagged model was employed to relate T1 school step counts with T2 gross motor skills and T1 gross motor skills with T2 school step counts.Results:T1 gross motor skills significantly predicted T2 school step counts(β=0.24,95%confidence interval(95%CI):0.08-0.40,p=0.003);however,Tl school step counts did not predict T2 gross motor skills(β=0.04,95%CI:-0.06 to 0.14,p=0.445).The model explained 35.4%and 15.9%of the variances of T2 gross motor skills and T2 school step counts,respectively.Additional analyses indicated that these relationships were driven primarily by ball skills.Conclusion:The relationship between gross motor skills and school PA was not bidirectional;however,higher gross motor skills,specifically ball skills,predicted higher school PA after a 3-month summer break.     

Psychological Mood Profiles of Sighted and Unsighted Beep Baseball Players

Purpose: Decline of motor performance in older individuals affects their quality of life. Understanding the contribution of sport-related training in advanced ages might help to attenuate motor performance decay as one gets older. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the extent to which long-lasting training in running or sport-specific skills during old age preserves motor performance in different motor tasks. Method: Older runners and tennis players with at least 10 years of training were assessed as were age-matched and young exercisers. Performance was evaluated for 6 motor tasks requiring different functions of sensorimotor control expected to decline with aging. Results: Analysis revealed that runners had increased aerobic fitness in comparison with the other older participants and that they presented similar performance to older exercisers in the motor tasks. Tennis players outperformed the other groups of older participants on coincident timing and simple reaction time and achieved similar performance to the young group on the timing task. Conclusions: These results suggest selective maintenance of task-specific processing through extensive practice of tennis-related motor skills in older adults.     

Influence of Decision-Making on Attitudes,Creativity, Motor Skills and Self-Concept in Elementary Children

Abstract

Attitudes, creativity, self-concept and motor skills were measured to determine the influence of decision-making on elementary children. Three groups of children (N = 208) were tested, one group was taught with the teacher dominating all classroom decisions, another group was encouraged to share in the decision-making, and a third group served as a control. Data were collected immediately before and after an eight-week instructional period. MANCOVA indicated that the two treatment groups had significantly higher scores than did the control group, and the shared decision-making group scored significantly higher than the teacher dominated group on measures of creativity, motor skills and self-concept. A 2 (treatment) × 2 (sex) × 5 (grade) ANOVA revealed significantly more positive attitude scores for children allowed to make decisions regarding their learning. Further, Pearson product-moment correlation showed the tested variables to be independent measures of a child's development.     

Ensenanzas en un Gimnasio: An Investigation of Modeling and Verbal Rehearsal on the Motor Performance of Hispanic Limited English Proficient Children

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of modeling and verbal rehearsal on the motor performance of English-speaking and limited English proficient (LEP) children. Children (N = 64) in 4th-grade classes were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 (Gender x Primary Language x Model Type x Rehearsal) factorial design. Boys and girls whose primary language was English or Spanish were assigned to either a verbal model or no-model condition as well as to a verbal rehearsal or no-rehearsal condition of the motor skills required to be performed. Analysis of variance revealed a significant Model Type x Primary Language interaction as well as a significant Rehearsal x Primary Language interaction. Follow-Up analyses revealed that English-speaking children provided with a verbal rehearsal strategy recalled significantly more skills than English-speaking children in the no-rehearsal condition; for LEP children, there were no differences due to rehearsal. Moreover, LEP children presented with a verbal model recalled significantly more skills than LEP children in the no-model condition; for English-speaking children, there were no differences attributed to model type. These results indicate that effective modeling conditions that are provided with verbal cues in English are related to children's primary language.     

Does a perceptuomotor skills assessment have added value to detect talent for table tennis in primary school children?

ABSTRACT

Talent detection intends to support lifelong sports participation, reduce dropouts and stimulate sports at the elite level. For this purpose it is important to reveal the specific profile which directs children to the sports that connect to their strengths and preferences. This study evaluated a perceptuomotor skills assessment as part of talent detection for table tennis, a sport in which perceptuomotor skills are considered essential to cope with the difficult technical aspects. Primary school children (n = 121) and gifted young table tennis players (n = 146) were assessed using the Dutch perceptuomotor skills assessment measuring “ball control” and “gross motor function”. A discriminant function analysis confirmed the added value by identifying primary school children fitting the table tennis perceptuomotor profile of the young gifted table tennis players (28%). General linear model analyses for the assessment’s individual test items showed that the table tennis players outperformed their primary school peers on all “ball control” items (P < 0.001). In conclusion, the assessment appears to be of added value for talent detection in table tennis at this young age. Longitudinal studies need to reveal the predictive value for sports participation and elite sports.     

Daily physical activity and sports participation among children from ethnic minorities in Denmark

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether Danish children from immigrant backgrounds are less physically active than children from the ethnic majority, and to investigate the possible reasons for any differences found. Accelerometer measures of physical activity as well as questionnaire data about organised sports, family demography, resources and values were collected from 594 children of whom 67 had other ethnic background than Danish. Data were collected when the children were 6–7 years old and again later when the children were 9–10 years old. It was found that children from immigrant backgrounds were not less physically active than other children when their amounts of daily physical activity were measured by direct objective measures, despite their participation rate in organised sports being much lower. Using multiple logistic regression modelling, this study showed that lack of parental experience with organised sports and lack of economic/material resources explained much of the difference in sports participation. Children of immigrant background had significant lower participation in club sports but this did not affect their overall physical activity level.     

Relationship between Achievement in Reading and Achievement in Selected Motor Skills in Elementary School Children

Abstract

The study was designed to determine the relationships between achievement in reading and achievement in selected motor skills for children in grades 1, 3, 5. The Iowa tests of basic skills were used to determine reading achievement and the Johnson motor achievement battery was employed to measure achievement in selected motor skills. The Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation was applied to compute the relationships between the reading and motor achievement variables. The subjects were divided into three reading achievement levels and Scheffe's method of comparing pairs of means from a two-way analysis of variance table was employed to determine if the achievement differences in the motor skills tests were significant. The following conclusions were drawn: a) Highly significant correlations were found to exist between achievement in reading and the throw and catch test and achievement in reading and the zig-zag run test; b) Little or no consistent relationship existed between achievement in reading and the kicking test or the jump and reach test; c) Significant differences among the selected reading levels were found for the throw and catch test and the zig-zag run test; d) Few significant differences among the selected reading levels were found for the kicking test and for the jump and reach test.     

Changes in Fundamental Motor-Skill Performance Following a Nine-Month Mastery Motivational Climate Intervention

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Children who do not learn their fundamental motor skills (FMS) are more likely to be unskilled, sedentary adults. By consequence, it behooves those teaching physical education to put in place mechanisms that promote as well as motivate children to master their FMS. One approach to achieving this goal is through the adoption of mastery motivational climates (MMC) in physical education. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a year-long (9-month) MMC physical education program on preschool children’s FMS learning. Method: Participants (N = 96, MMC = 58, Comparison = 38) completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition prior to and after intervention. Intact classrooms were randomly assigned to either a MMC or comparison group. A repeated measures nested MANOVA was used to test changes by group. Follow-up measurements included univariate repeated measures and simple effects analyses. Results: There were no significant multivariate differences based on class membership (p = .249), indicating the nested structure was not associated with any meaningful differences in test scores. There was a significant multivariate difference based on the interaction of time (pre- versus post-test) and group (p < .001). Both locomotor and ball skills significantly varied between groups and across time. Children in both groups improved from pre-test to post-test, but the rate of improvement was significantly greater for the MMC group. Conclusions: A year-long MMC intervention is beneficial for improving children’s FMS.     

Physical activity as a dimension of family life for lower primary school children

While questions of children's engagement in physical activity are being widely debated, little is known about how physical activity is valued and managed within families. This paper reports on qualitative data from a multi-method study on lower primary aged children. The focus of the broader study was to determine the relationships between young children's physical activity patterns, skills, and recreational interests, and their families' location, income, commitment to physical activity, and other responsibilities. Drawing on interviews with 12 purposively selected families, it was found that physical activity was highly valued across different family contexts, that children's engagement was shaped by their interests, friendships, and safety, and that issues such as income, family configuration, parental work commitments, and transport were potential barriers to further engagement.     

Children's self-perceived bodily competencies and associations with motor skills,body mass index,teachers' evaluations,and parents' concerns

Abstract

The associations between physical competence, self-perceived bodily competence, parental concern for their children's motor skill development, and teachers' evaluation of their bodily competence were assessed in 646 six- to seven-year-olds. Physical competence was assessed by the German motor ability test “Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder”, while the children's, their parents', and their teachers' evaluations were obtained through questionnaires. Parental concern, teacher evaluation, and a high body mass index were the strongest predictors of low physical competence (motor skill quotient <85). Teachers' evaluation of bodily competence was associated with low self-perceived bodily competence in the children even after adjustment for motor skill quotient, with an odds ratio of 2.3 (P < 0.05) between the lowest and highest of the three levels after correction for motor skill competence. Results indicate that teachers' evaluation of children's motor skills should be considered a key factor when tracking and assessing physical competencies among youth.     

Motor Skill and Behavior Adjustment: An Exploratory Study

Abstract

This study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of a supplementary physical education program in improving selected motor skills and behavior adjustment of primary school children who were poor in motor skills and deficient in behavior adjustment. Tests were administered to members of two experimental groups (instruction and non-instruction) and two control groups (deviant and normal) at various times during a one-year period. Improvement in motor performance demonstrated by each of the two experimental groups was significantly greater than such improvement made by each of the control groups. The level of motor performance attained by each of the experimental groups did not significantly differ from the level of motor performance exhibited by normal primary school children. Changes in behavior adjustment among the participants were not statistically significant.     

Perceptions of Physical Competence,Motor Competence,and Participation in Organized Sport: Their Interrelationships in Young Children

Abstract

This study examined the interrelationships among perceived physical competence, motor competence, and participation in organized sport in young children. Males and females in Grades K through 4 (n = 250) were given The Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1979) or The Pictoral Scale for Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (Harter, Pike, Efron, Chao, & Bierer, 1983), a 9-item motor competence assessment battery, and a questionnaire regarding their participation in sport. Results revealed that perceived physical competence for children in these grade levels was not significantly related to their participation in organized sport programs. Motor competence was significantly related to participation in that participants in organized sport programs performed selected gross motor tasks better than did nonparticipants. Further, children's reported perceptions of physical competence were significantly related to their demonstrated motor competence. Discussion focused on the theoretical and practical implications of the results.     

The Effects of Three Styles of Teaching on the Psychomotor Performance And Social Skill Development of Fifth Grade Children

Abstract

The effects of Mosston's teaching styles B, C and E were examined in terms of motor skill acquisition and social skill development of fifth grade children. Ninety-six children, randomly selected and randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups, were taught a hockey accuracy task. Motor performance data were collected prior to, midway through, and following training; they were analyzed within groups, to determine if learning was evident, and across groups, to examine the relative effectiveness of these three styles of teaching. Social behavior patterns observed during learner-to-learner interaction were also examined during a second task in which pairs of learners were asked to “help” each other learn the task. A 3 × 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that (1) all three groups learned the task and (2) they learned comparably well. It was concluded that these three styles of teaching are all effective in facilitating learning of this type of motor task. Style C, an arrangement in whcih learners work in pairs, one performing the task while being provided with formative feedback by the other, was found not only to produce comparable learning, but to significantly enhance social skill development on those behaviors associated with giving feedback and receiving it from a peer.     

Bringing objectivity to motor skill assessment in children

ABSTRACT

The study purpose was to use Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) to objectively assess children’s motor competence in seven movement skills. Fourteen children aged from seven to 12 years (M = 9.64) participated. Children were asked to perform up to 10 trials of each skill. Children performed the skills, which were captured by XSENS MVN Awinda wireless motion capture, and video. Skills were assessed from video as per the criteria from the Test of Gross Motor Development 3. Initially, 17 IMU sensors were used for signal processing, but this was restricted to four sensors (wrists and ankles) to be more feasible for field assessment. Results of the signal testing against its modelled “Good” signal, showed the skip was classified correctly each time, as was the sidestep. Accuracy % rates for each skill were: kick (95.2), catch (95.0), throw (80.5), jump (78.9), and hop (76.9). Using signal processing-based methods via four sensors was a reliable and feasible way to assess seven motor skills in children. This approach means monitoring and assessment of children’s skills can be objective, which will potentially reduce the time involved in motor skill assessment and analysis for research, clinical, sport and education purposes.     

Statistical Procedures Used in Multiple-group Experiments

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if differences in mental imagery exist among groups of university women varying in experience, interests, and abilities in motor skills. Subjects for this study were 77 women, all of whom were associated with the Pennsylvania State University. Included were 14 physical education faculty members, 18 senior physical education majors, 19 freshman physical education majors, and 26 freshman nonmajors. Mental imagery was measured with three imagery tests developed specifically for this study. Test data were analyzed and treated statistically using analysis of variance and Duncan's new multiple-range test. The four groups did not differ significantly in their ability to recognize previously presented geometric forms or previously presented motor acts. The three major groups were significantly superior in remembering details of motor demonstrations when compared to the least experienced.     

Who SKIPS? Using Temperament to Explain Differential Outcomes of a Motor Competence Intervention for Preschoolers

Purpose: Although motor skill interventions often improve fundamental motor skills (FMS) during preschool, the extent of individual children’s success in development of FMS still varies among children receiving the same intervention. Temperament is multifaceted and includes negative affect (high levels of frustration or anger), effortful control (focus, self-regulation, and concentration), and surgency (energy and activity level). Temperament often influences cognitive, social, and behavioral outcomes and may be a significant factor in the development of FMS. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of temperament on children’s improvement in FMS within a gross motor intervention. Method: Participants (N = 80; M_age = 55.36 months, SD = 6.99 months) completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition prior to and after intervention. Teachers completed the Child Behavior Questionnaire-Very Short Form to examine each child’s temperament. To account for possibility of a Type 1 error, we conducted 6 separate 2 (temperament variable: high, low) × 2 (treatment: intervention, control) analyses of covariance and examined posttest scores for locomotor and object-control skills with pretest scores as covariates among participants with high and low surgency, negative affect, and effortful control. Results: Results revealed children with low levels of negative affect and surgency and high levels of effortful control demonstrated greater gains (η_p² = .05–.34) in both locomotor and object-control skills during motor skill intervention compared with their peers. Conclusion: Providing interventions tailored to temperamental profiles could maximize gains in FMS through intervention.     

Recreational activities and motor skills of children in kindergarten

Background: Developmental theorists suggest that physical activity during early childhood promotes fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency; and that differences in FMS proficiency are largely related to children's experiences.

Aim: To examine associations between participation in different types of recreation/leisure and FMS proficiency of boys and girls in their first year of school. We hypothesized that there would be positive associations between FMS proficiency and participation in organized sport, physical activities, and active physical recreation; but not for other types of recreation/leisure.

Method: Participants (n?=?74) were kindergarten children (Mage?=?5y11?m; boys?=?55%). Parents completed the diversity dimension of the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) survey. The CAPE measures children's participation in everyday activities outside of mandated school activities in the past four months in five types of formal and informal activities, specifically: Recreational activities, Physical activities, Social activities, Skill-Based activities, and Self-Improvement activities. Two categories of activities were also reported: Organized Sport and Active Physical Recreation. Locomotor and object control skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 and static balance was assessed using a stork stand. Sex-based differences in motor skills and participation were examined using chi-squared analyses. Correlation coefficients were used to examine relationships between motor skills and CAPE sub-domains and categories. Linear regression was used to examine whether the type of activity predicted motor skill proficiency and the reverse.

Results: There were no sex-based differences in locomotor skills; whereas boys' object control skill scores were significantly higher than girls, and girls' stork stand scores were higher than boys'. Although there were no sex-based differences in the more active categories of recreational pastimes; girls participated in significantly more formal and informal dance and the prevalence of participation in team sports was significantly higher for boys. For boys, participation in physical activities predicted both locomotor and object control skill scores, organized sport predicted object control skills, and active recreation predicted stork stand times and object control skill scores. These relationships were not evident among the girls.

Conclusions: These findings illustrate that young children participate in a narrower array of physically active recreational pursuits compared with less active pursuits. There were notable sex-based differences in the relationships between participation and motor skill proficiency. For girls, none of the associations between recreational pastimes and motor skill proficiency were significant. This suggests that the motor proficiency of girls, as assessed in this study, is neither a precursor to, nor an outcome of, participation in active recreational pastimes. Contrastingly, the findings for boys support theory that suggests that physical activity is driving the acquisition of particular types of motor skills. Less active recreational activities were not associated with motor skill levels of boys, whereas each of the more active categories of recreational pastimes (active recreation, physical activities, and organized sport) predicted at least one sub-type of motor skill. It also seems clear from our findings that more light needs to be shed on how to optimally portray young girls' motor skill proficiency; as well as the relationships between their participation and motor skills.