Educating Students for a Lifetime of Physical Activity: Enhancing Mindfulness,Motivation, and Meaning

For many years, pedagogical scholars and physical education (PE) teachers have worked to enhance effective teaching and learning environments. Yet for some children, youth, and young adults, many of the benefits associated with a physically active lifestyle remain elusive. Enhancing programming and performance to meet physical activity goals may require moving programs beyond “effective.” It will require teachers and program leaders to focus programmatic attention on strategies to actually increase students’ out-of-class physical activity behavior. Transformative PE provides physical activity content within a nurturing and motivating environment that can change students’ lives. It focuses on PE students’ role in cognitive decision making, self-motivation, and their search for personal meaning that can add connection and relevance to physical activities. In this SHAPE America – Society of Health and Physical Educators Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture, I have synthesized the research on these topics to emphasize useful findings applicable to teachers’ everyday planning and teaching. Using sport, physical activity, dance, and adventure activities as the means to an end for personal and social growth, we can meet our commitment to effective standards-based education while preparing students for a lifetime of physical activity.     

青少年体育活动中的内部动机和目标定向研究

采用自我决定理论和目标定向理论，调查了1609名9-21岁青少年的运动能力知觉、体育课满意程度、动机自主性和目标定向。研究结果发现，在能力知觉、体育课满意程度、动机自主性和学习定向上存在性别、锻炼次数和时间、年龄的显著差异，但在成绩定向上差异不显著。同时发现，能力知觉、体育课满意程度、动机自主性和学习定向之间存在显著正相关，而体育课满意程度与成绩定向，动机自主性和成绩之间均存在显著负相关。为了提高学生参与体育活动的动机，应该减少体育活动中的竞争性，提高学生参与体育课的内部动机，促进学习定向。     

Development and Initial Validation of the Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale in Physical Education

The current study presents the development process and initial validation of a measure designed for assessing psychological needs satisfaction in a secondary school physical education context (Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale in Physical Education, PNSSPE). Junior secondary school (grades 7 to 9) students (N?=?1,258) were invited to participate in three studies. In Study 1, item generation (34 items) and initial content validity of the PNSSPE were achieved. In Study 2, the factorial structure of the PNSSPE was tested using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliabilities of the subscales were also examined. In Study 3, the reliability and validity of the scores derived from the PNSSPE were further examined in an independent sample. Overall, the PNSSPE demonstrated good content, factorial, discriminant, and nomological validities. It also demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and test–retest reliability. The measurement model was proven invariant across gender and samples. Psychometric evidence from a series of studies suggests that the PNSSPE could be used as a reliable and valid measure to assess Hong Kong secondary school students’ satisfaction of psychological needs in physical education.     

Validity and Reliability of the School Physical Activity Environment Questionnaire

The goal of the current study was to establish the factor validity of the Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment (Robertson-Wilson, Lévesque, & Holden, 2007 Robertson-Wilson, J., Lévesque, L. and Holden, R. R. 2007. Development of a questionnaire assessing school physical activity environment. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 11: 93–107. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) using confirmatory factor analysis procedures. Another goal was to establish internal reliability and test–retest reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis results of this study supported a slightly altered version of the Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment's school physical activity environment subscale. Internal reliability was adequate, while test–retest reliability was questionable. In brief, the pattern of findings indicated that while the original Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment is likely adequate for some research purposes, a slightly modified version (Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment-R) was psychometrically stronger. However, given the distinct differences in samples used in the original validation study and the current study, more research on the psychometric properties of the Questionnaire Assessing School Physical Activity Environment is needed to determine if the current results and Robertson-Wilson et al.'s (2007 Robertson-Wilson, J., Lévesque, L. and Holden, R. R. 2007. Development of a questionnaire assessing school physical activity environment. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 11: 93–107. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) results are sample specific.     

Detecting Bouts of Physical Activity in a Field Setting

Abstract

The purposes of this study were to assess the TRITRAC® and CSA® for: (a) interaccelerometer agreement; (b) agreement in detecting patterns of moderate-intensity physical activity; and (c) agreement in detecting walking patterns recorded in a diary. Thirty-one women wore both the TRITRAC® and CSA® accelerometers for three consecutive days. Interaccelerometer agreement (measured with generalizability coefficients) ranged from .88 to .99. In total, 71.3% of the accelerometers' patterns agreed in length, with CSA® patterns being on average significantly longer. Interaccelerometer agreement in detecting patterns of brisk walking, as recorded in a diary, was comparable (69.4%). Interaccelerometer discrepancies may be related in part to the threshold employed by each instrument for classifying moderate intensity patterns.     

基于自我决定动机理论视角下的体育学习效果研究进展

为丰富国内自我决定动机与体育学习效果的研究视角,系统综述了2000-2018年期间国外有关自我决定动机理论与体育学习效果的研究文献,探讨了自我决定动机对运动技能、身体活动、情感态度和认知学习等方面的影响。结果表明:1)自主性动机对儿童青少年的身体活动、体育学习愉悦感、参与度、努力度和未来继续参与身体活动的意愿等方面的影响得到了肯定;2)自主性动机与运动技能和认知学习之间关系仍不明朗,有待更多的研究进行证明和挖掘;3)控制性动机和无动机对各维度体育学习效果的影响仍未达成共识,有待后续更多的研究加以验证。建议未来相关研究应加强自主性动机与运动技能和认知学习效果的关联研究,进一步关注控制性动机和无动机对各维度体育学习效果的影响,增加纵向研究和序列研究的比例,探讨自我决定动机对不同性别学生体育学习效果的影响差异。     

Occupational Socialization and the Physical Education Student Teacher

The purpose of this study was to assess the physical education student teacher's Pupil Control Ideology (PCI) prior to and after student teaching and to examine the cooperating teacher's role as a socialization agent. PCI was examined by the Pupil Control Ideology Form which assesses the ideology on a continuum from custodialism to humanism. In addition, observational and interview data were collected in order to make further comparisons with PCI data. The results indicate that the subjects (N = 28) became significantly more custodial in their PCI during student teaching. When compared to cooperating teacher scores, student teachers' mean PCI scores were significantly different on pretest analyses (in a humanistic direction), but not on posttest analyses. Furthermore, PCI results from subjects selected for field observation indicated that the humanistic group moved in a custodial direction, while the custodial group moved in a humanistic direction. Finally, observation and interview data support the quantitative findings and the student teacher's maintenance of or shift toward a custodial control ideology, as influenced by the cooperating teacher and other factors particular to the physical education setting.     

Relationship between a 14-Day Recall Measure of Leisure-Time Physical Activity and a Submaximal Test of Physical Work Capacity in a Population Sample of Australian Adults

Abstract

This paper reports on the validity of a 14-day recall measure of leisure time physical activity (LTPA) in a sample of Australian adults (N = 986). Submaximal cycle ergometry was used to assess physical work capacity per kilogram of body mass (pwc75/kg). The self-report energy expenditure estimates were used to categorize respondents as vigorously active, moderately active, and low active/sedentary. Multiple regression analyses showed that pwc75/kg increased significantly across energy expenditure categories for adults aged less than 40 years; that the vigorous and moderate activity categories had greater mean pwc75/kg values than the low/sedentary category for 40 to 59-year-olds; and, that there were no differences in pwc75/kg between activity categories for those aged 60 years or older.     

Coach Autonomy Support,Basic Need Satisfaction,and Intrinsic Motivation of Paralympic Athletes

The purpose of the present study, grounded in self-determination theory, was to explore the relationship between Paralympic athletes' perceptions of autonomy-supportive coach behavior, basic psychological needs, and intrinsic motivation to know, accomplish, and experience stimulation. One hundred thirteen Canadian Paralympic athletes completed an online survey, consisting of measures of coach autonomy support; of perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness; and of intrinsic motivation. Perceived coach autonomy support was a predictor of athletes' perceptions of autonomy and relatedness. Perceived competence was a significant predictor of all three forms of intrinsic motivation, while perceived autonomy was a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation to accomplish and experience stimulation. The results highlight the important relationship between coach behavior and athlete motivation in disability sport.     

Examining Combinations of Social Physique Anxiety and Motivation Regulations Using Latent Profile Analysis

Previous research has used cluster analysis to examine how social physique anxiety (SPA) combines with motivation in physical education. This study utilized a more advanced analytic approach, latent profile analysis (LPA), to identify profiles of SPA and motivation regulations. Students in grades 9–12 (N = 298) completed questionnaires at two time points assessing SPA and motivation regulations, psychological needs, enjoyment, effort, and characteristics of physical education peers. LPA identified four profiles representing Autonomous (13.4%), Average (39.3%), Low Autonomous (25.2%), and Autonomous and Introjected (22.1%). Profiles were replicated at a second time point, and evidence of profile measurement invariance across gender was found. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed profile differences. The model-based analytic approach to identify profiles of SPA and motivation regulations differed from cluster analysis profiles. The profiles were not driven by SPA, rather autonomous motivation is the dominant factor associated with physical education motivational experiences.     

Fitting Multidimensional Amotivation into the Self-Determination Theory Nomological Network: Application in School Physical Education

The present study investigated the nomological validity of the Amotivation Inventory–Physical Education (Shen, Wingert, Li, Sun, & Rukavina, 2010b Shen, B., Wingert, R. K., Li, W., Sun, H. and Rukavina, P. B. 2010b. An amotivation model in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 29: 72–84. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) scores by examining the associations of ability, effort, value, and task characteristics amotivation beliefs with self-determination theory variables. Data were collected from 401 fifth- and sixth-grade students, 416 middle-school students, and 401 high-school students. After providing support for the correlated four-factor structure, the hierarchical structure, internal consistency, and composite reliability of the Amotivation Inventory–Physical Education scores, large negative correlations emerged with perceived autonomy support by the PE teacher; needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness; identified regulation; intrinsic motivation; and students' subjective vitality. Strong positive correlations were obtained with unidimensional amotivation and external regulation, and weak correlations were obtained with introjected regulation. Also, multidimensional amotivation beliefs partially mediated the relationship between the need for autonomy and subjective vitality. The results provided support for the nomological aspect of construct validity of the Amotivation Inventory–Physical Education scores.     

教学气氛对体育学习动机水平的影响——目标定向与自我决定理论的相关分析

根据目标定向理论和自我决定理论在理论上的相近之处,从情景和个体的角度出发,通过创造的动机气氛,进行8周的实验,来比较两种不同教学气氛下,学生的目标定向和动机水平。研究结果表明,体育教学中创造任务掌握气氛有利于学生任务定向的形成,以及体育学习内部动机的提高和缺乏动机的降低,而体育教学中自我表现气氛会降低学生体育学习的内部动机;自主需要、归属需要和能力需要是影响体育学习动机水平的重要变量。     

Physical Activity for Lent: Changes in and Associations Between Religiosity,Enjoyment, Motivation,and Physical Activity

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Given the unequal distribution of physical activity (PA) opportunities across middle schools, alternative options for promoting it should be explored. Faith-based schools are positioned to offer religious-themed PA interventions, yet few have been reported. We replicated previous research by investigating the effects of the Physical Activity for Lent (PAL) program on change in step count (ΔPA) and its associations with religiosity, enjoyment, and motivation (four subscales). Method: Over the 6-week Lenten season, three Catholic middle schools’ students (n = 128) participated in a randomly allocated controlled crossover trial of a pedometer-based virtual journey that followed Jesus’s life path. We used the Reliable Change Index (RCI), general linear mixed models, and logistic regression to identify changes (pre- to post-Lent) in the independent variables, and their association with ΔPA overall and of being in the highest ΔPA tertile. Results: Between 11.6% (religiosity) and 34.7% (external regulation) of participants’ scores changed. School (School 3 > Schools 1 and 2 by ~2,400 steps/day, p < .001) and grade (6th grade > 7th and 8th grades by ~2,500 steps/day, p < .001) – but not religiosity, enjoyment, or motivation – were significant predictors of ΔPA. As RCI for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation increased, students were more (OR = 2.49) and less (OR = 0.74) likely, respectively, to be in the high ΔPA tertile. Conclusion: Desirable ΔPA was situational (i.e., school, grade) and highest ΔPA tertile was associated with autonomous motivation. Faith-based PA interventions may need to include additional components to realize even greater gains.     

Effects of Curricular Activity on Students' Situational Motivation and Physical Activity Levels

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine (a) the effects of three curricular activities on students' situational motivation (intrinsic motivation [IM], identified regulation [IR], external regulation, and amotivation [AM]) and physical activity (PA) levels, and (b) the predictive strength of situational motivation to PA levels. Four hundred twelve students in grades 7–9 participated in three activities (cardiovascular fitness, ultimate football, and Dance Dance Revolution [DDR]) in physical education. ActiGraph GT1M accelerometers were used to measure students' PA levels for three classes for each activity. Students also completed a Situational Motivation Scale (Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000) at the end of each class. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed that students spent significantly higher percentages of time in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) in fitness and football classes than they did in DDR class. Students reported higher IM and IR toward fitness than DDR. They also scored higher in IR toward fitness than football. In contrast, students displayed significantly lower AM toward fitness than football and DDR. Hierarchical Linear Modeling revealed that IM was the only positive predictor for time in MVPA (p = .02), whereas AM was the negative predictor (p < .01). The findings are discussed in regard to the implications for educational practice.     

The Development of a Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM)

The aim of this research was to develop an exercise-related goal orientation measure in an attempt to further researchers' and practitioners' current understanding of individuals' motivation to exercise for health and recreational purposes. The Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (GOEM) was developed to assess individuals' proneness to endorse task or ego goals. Participants included 372 males and females from 16 recreational physical activity clubs in Southeast England. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the two-factor model and demonstrated invariance between sexes. Internal consistency for task and ego subscales was .78 and .88, respectively, while correlations between the goal orientations and behavioral regulations (Markland & Tobin, 2004 Markland, D. and Tobin, V. 2004. A modification to the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26: 191–196. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) served to provide initial evidence for the construct validity of the measure. The development of the GOEM may allow for a broader understanding of the motivational processes implicated in exercise-related domains.     

A Cross-Cultural Validation of Perceived Locus of Causality Scale in Physical Education Context

We examined the validity of the factor structure and invariance of the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale instrument scores across two nations endorsing collectivist (Singapore) and individualist (Great Britain) cultural values. Results indicated that confirmatory factor analytic models of the PLOC exhibited adequate ft according to multiple criteria within each sample and across samples. There was invariance in the item-intercepts across the two cultures. In addition, the simplex-like pattern of relations among the PLOC constructs was confirmed within cultures and in invariance analyses. Finally, latent factor means analysis revealed that the British participants tended to rate less self-determined forms of motivation lower than and more self-determined forms of motivation higher than the Singaporean participants.     

Validity and Reliability of Three Self-Report Instruments for Assessing Attainment of Physical Activity Guidelines in University Students

The purpose of this study was to compare the validity and reliability of three short physical activity self-report instruments to determine their potential for use with university student populations. The participants (N = 155; 44.5% male; 22.9 ± 5.13 years) wore an accelerometer for 9 consecutive days and completed a single-item measure, the a brief two item measure and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire—Short Form questionnaires on day 1 and 9. Correlations between self-reported and accelerometer derived moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels were moderate for the International Physical Activity Questionnaire—Short Form, while poor for the single-item measure and the a brief two item measure. The agreement level was high with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire—Short Form (77.4%) and moderate for both the single-item measure (45.2 %) and a brief two item measure (44.5 %). The intraclass correlations between the two administrations were moderate to strong across all measures (0.52–0.70) in 133 participants. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire—Short Form is the most suitable of these three self-report instruments for use with this population due to higher correlations and levels of agreement with accelerometry.     

身体活动水平对大学生全人健康的影响研究

为了考察性别、年级、身体活动水平与大学生全人健康各维度之间的差异性,采用问卷调查法,对1713名大学生进行问卷调查,回收有效问卷1570份,有效率为92%。使用独立样本t检验对男、女大学生进行差异分析,对不同年级的低、中、高运动强度和频率进行方差分析。结果表明:大学生的全人健康水平处于中等水平(M=2.55,SD=0.43),其中女大学生整体健康水平高于男大学生,女大学生在职业、智力、情感、精神、身体健康维度均高于男大学生,两者在财务、社会、环境健康维度无显著性差异。二年级大学生全人健康水平最高,四年级最低。身体健康和社会健康是全人健康模型中得分最高的维度。在中、高等强度身体活动水平上全人健康得分最高,低运动频率的大学生全人健康水平最高,高运动频率的大学生全人健康水平最低。由此可知,引入国外全人健康测量工具,用来评估我国大学生群体,其结果具有较高的信效度。相关变量的检定与研究假设相符,为今后进一步开展全人健康相关研究奠定了基础。     

体力活动与成年女性血流介导的肱动脉内皮舒张功能关系研究

目的:探讨女性肱动脉血流介导的内皮舒张功能(FMD)随年龄变化特点,及其与体力活动水平的关系。方法:对来自北京市海淀区的20～69岁健康女性405名,放免法测试血清雌二醇(E2)、硫酸脱氢表雄酮(DHEAS)水平,采用日本UNEX高分辨率超声血管内皮功能分析仪,测试肱动脉血流介导的内皮舒张功能相关指标;同时,评估40岁以上女性体力活动水平。结果:随年龄增长,肱动脉内径基线值和血流介导的舒张后内径均增加(P<0.05),尤其40岁以后出现显著增长;60岁以上女性血流介导的内皮舒张功能显著降低(P<0.05),阻断血流再恢复血供时达到最大血流的时间缩短,最大血流速度增大(P<0.05);40岁以上各组血清E2、DHEAS水平下降(P<0.05);与体力活动缺乏或较低组相比,体力活动水平中等或较高者最大血流速度较低(8.13±4.32vs 9.23±5.51m/s,P<0.05);与从不锻炼和偶尔锻炼者相比,经常锻炼者血清E2水平、肱动脉内径基线值和血流介导的舒张后内径均较高(P<0.05)。结论:血管内径基线值的变化在反映血管内皮功能方面具有预警意义,当血管最大舒张能力与基线值的变化不相适应时,出现血管功能障碍;60岁以上女性血管内皮功能出现显著退化,可能与其心血管风险增加有关,雌激素(E2)可能介导随年龄增长血管内皮功能的变化,以及体力活动或体育锻炼对血管内皮功能的保护作用。