Cardiovascular and ventilatory responses during formalized T'ai Chi Chuan exercise

T'ai Chi Chuan (TCC) is a widely practiced Chinese martial art said to physically develop balance and coordination as well as enhance emotional and mental health. TCC consists of a series of postures combined into a sequential movement providing a smooth, continuous, low-intensity activity. The purpose of this study was to examine the ventilatory and cardiovascular responses to the Long Form of Yang's style TCC. In addition, the subjects' TCC responses were compared to their ventilatory and cardiovascular responses during cycle ergometry at an oxygen consumption (VO2) equivalent to the mean TCC VO2. Six experienced (M = 8.3 yrs) male TCC practitioners served as subjects with data collected during the Cloud H and movement of the TCC exercise. Significantly (p less than .05) lower responses for ventilatory frequency (Vf) (11.3 and 15.7 breaths.min-1), ventilatory equivalent (VE/VO2) (23.47 and 27.41), and the ratio of dead space ventilation to tidal volume (VD/VT) (20 and 27%) were found in TCC in comparison to cycle ergometry. The percentage of minute ventilation used for alveolar ventilation was significantly higher during TCC (p less than .03) than cycle ergometry, with mean values of 81.1% and 73.1%, respectively. Cardiac output, stroke volume, and heart rate were not significantly different between TCC exercise and cycle ergometry at the same oxygen consumption. We concluded that, during TCC, expert practitioners show significantly different ventilatory responses leading to more efficient use of the ventilatory volume than would be expected from comparable levels of exertion on a cycle ergometer.     

Examining the Moderating Effect of Appearance Impression Motivation on the Relationship Between Perceived Physical Appearance and Social Physique Anxiety

We measured the effects of stride rate, resistance, and combined arm-leg use on energy expenditure during elliptical trainer exercise and assessed the accuracy of the manufacturer's energy expenditure calculations. Twenty-six men and women (M age = 29 years, SD = 8; M body weight = 73.0 kg, SD = 15.2) participated. Twenty-two participants performed two tests, one without the arm poles (leg-only) and the other with arm poles (combined arm-leg). The other 4 participants performed one test without the arm poles. Both tests consisted of six 5-min stages (two stride rates, 110 and 134 strides^.min^-1, and three resistance settings: 2, 5, and 8). Steady-state oxygen uptake (VO₂), minute ventilation (VE), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured. Repeated measures analysis of variance determined higher (p < .001) VO₂, VE, and RPE, but not HR, during combined arm-leg versus leg-only exercise at any given intensity. Increases in stride rate and resistance increased VO₂, VE, RPE, and HR with the greatest effect on VE and HR from Levels 5 to 8. The manufacturer's calculated energy expenditure was overestimated during both tests. Although the oxygen cost for elliptical trainer exercise was calculated to be approximately 0.1 ml^.kg^-1 per stride and 0.7 ml^.kg^-1.min^-1 per resistance level, VO₂ varied widely among individuals, possibly due to differences in experience using the elliptical trainer, gender, and body composition. The elliptical trainer offers (a) a variety of intensities appropriate for most individuals and (b) both arm and leg exercise. Due to the wide variability in VO₂, predicting the metabolic cost during elliptical trainer exercise for an individual is not appropriate.     

Is the highest fat oxidation rate coincident with the anaerobic threshold in obese women and men?

Abstract

In this study we determined the exercise intensity that elicits the highest fat oxidation rate in 15 obese women and 13 obese men. Furthermore the relationship between this intensity with the lactate (LT) and ventilatory thresholds (VT) was investigated in order to give training recommendation for maximal fat utilization during endurance exercise. After an incremental exercise test until exhaustion on a cycle ergometer, subjects performed six 20-min exercise bouts of 25, 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75% VO₂peak. The 20 min stages were randomly assigned and spread over two separate occasions (three bouts per occasion). Substrate oxidation was measured with indirect calorimetry and was calculated using stochiometric equations. In both, women and men the highest fat oxidation rate occurred at 65% VO₂peak and this did not coincide with either the VT or LT. A significant correlation between VT and LT could not be found in women (r=0.33) nor men (r=0.277). In obese women and men training recommendation for maximal fat utilization should not only be given by the intensity at which AnT occurs.     

Postexercise Energy Expenditure following Upper Body Exercise

Abstract

This study was designed to examine the magnitude and duration of excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) following upper body exercise, using lower body exercise for comparison. On separate days and in a counterbalanced order, eight subjects (four male and four female) performed a 20-min exercise at 60% of mode-specific peak oxygen uptake (VO₂) using an arm crank and cycle ergometer. Prior to each exercise, baseline VO₂ and heart rate (HR) were measured during the final 15 min of a 45-min seated rest. VO₂ and HR were measured continuously during the postexercise period until baseline VO₂ was reestablished. No significant difference between the two experimental conditions was found for magnitude of EPOC (t [7] = 0.69, p > .05). Mean (± SD) values were 9.2 ± 3.3 and 10.4 ± 5.8 kcal for the arm crank and cycle ergometer exercises, respectively. Duration of EPOC was relatively short and not significantly different (t [7] = 0.24, p > .05) between the upper body (22.9 ± 13.7 min) and lower body (24.2 ± 19.4 min) exercises. Within the framework of the chosen exercise conditions, these results suggest EPOC may be related primarily to the relative metabolic rate of the active musculature, as opposed to the absolute exercise VO₂ or quantity of active muscle mass associated with these two types of exercise.     

Effect of skill level on cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses during Tai Chi training

Abstract

Nowadays, Tai chi chuan (TCC) is practiced by millions worldwide with a range of skill levels. However, the effect of skill level on physiological response to TCC performance has yet to be clarified. In this study, physiological parameters during practicing simplified 24-form TCC were investigated and compared in 10 young high-level (HL) male TCC athletes and 10 ordinary-level (OL) male TCC practitioners with similar age and body size. Significantly higher energy expenditure, heart rate, oxygen uptake and tidal volume were found in HL group than OL group during TCC performance. The respiratory frequency and exhalation time were similar between the two groups during practicing TC; however, significantly less inhalation time was found in HL group (1.02±0.2 s) than OL group (1.12±0.28 s). Our results suggested that skill level may have considerable impact on metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses to TCC performance. TCC practitioners with different skill levels may practice TCC in different ways, which was supposed to lead to distinguishable response between the two groups.     

Matching of Male and Female Subjects Using VO2 max

Abstract

We compared cardiorespiratory responses to exercise on an underwater treadmill (UTM) and land treadmill (LTM) and derived an equation to estimate oxygen consumption (VO₂) during UTM exercise. Fifty-five men and women completed one LTM and five UTM exercise sessions on separate days. The UTM sessions consisted of chest-deep immersion, with 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% water-jet resistance. All session treadmill velocities increased every 3 min from 53.6 to 187.8 m·min^-1. Cardiorespiratory responses were similar between LTM and UTM when jet resistance for UTM was ≥ 50%. Using multiple regression analysis, weight-relative VO₂ could be estimated as: VO₂ (mLO₂·kg^-1·min^-1) = 0.19248 · height (cm) + 0.17422 · jet resistance (% max) + 0.14092 · velocity (m·min^-1) - 0.12794 · weight (kg) - 27.82849, R²= .82. Our data indicate that similar LTM and UTM cardiorespiratory responses are achievable, and we provide a reasonable estimate of UTM VO₂.     

Cardiac autonomic and haemodynamic recovery after a single session of aerobic exercise with and without blood flow restriction in older adults

This study investigated the autonomic and haemodynamic responses to different aerobic exercise loads, with and without blood flow restriction (BFR). In a crossover study, 21 older adults (8 males and 13 females) completed different aerobic exercise sessions: low load without BFR (LL) (40% VO_2max), low load with BFR (LL-BFR) (40% VO_2max + 50% BFR) and high load without BFR (HL) (70% VO_2max). Heart rate variability and haemodynamic responses were recorded during rest and throughout 30 min of recovery. HL reduced R–R interval, the root mean square of successive difference of R–R intervals and high frequency during 30 min of recovery at a greater magnitude compared with LL and LL-BFR. Sympathetic–vagal balance increased the values for HL during 30 min of recovery at a greater magnitude when compared with LL and LL-BFR. Post-exercise haemodynamic showed reduced values of double product at 30 min of recovery compared to rest in LL-BFR, while HL showed higher values compared to rest, LL-BFR and LL. Reduced systolic blood pressure was observed for LL-BFR (30 min) compared to rest. Autonomic and haemodynamic responses indicate lower cardiovascular stress after LL-BFR compared to HL, being this method, besides the functional adaptations, a potential choice to attenuate the cardiovascular stress after exercise in older adults.     

Comparison of physiological responses to graded exercise test performance in outrigger canoeing

Abstract

The aim of this study was to establish a graded exercise test protocol for determining the peak physiological responses of female outrigger canoeists. Seventeen trained female outrigger canoeists completed two outrigger ergometer graded exercise test protocols in random order: (1) 25 W power output for 2 min increasing by 7.5 W every minute until exhaustion; and (2) 25 W power output for 2 min increasing by 15 W every 2 min to exhaustion. Heart rate and power output were recorded every 15 s. Expired air was collected continuously and sampled for analysis at 15-s intervals, while blood lactate concentration was measured immediately after and 3, 5, and 7 min after exercise. The peak physiological and performance variables examined included peak oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O_2peak), minute ventilation, tidal volume, ventilatory thresholds 1 and 2, respiratory rate, respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, power output, performance time, and time to [Vdot]O_2peak. There were no significant differences in peak physiological responses, ventilatory thresholds or performance variables between the two graded exercise test protocols. Despite no significant differences between protocols, due to the large limits of agreement evident between protocols for the peak physiological responses, it is recommended that the same protocol be used for all comparison testing to minimize intra-individual variability of results.     

Inter-individual differences in the responses to aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease: Findings from the FIT-AD trial

Background:Despite the strong evidence of aerobic exercise as a disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer’s disease(AD)in animal models,its effects on cognition are inconsistent in human studies.A major contributor to these findings is inter-individual differences in the responses to aerobic exercise,which was well documented in the general population but not in those with AD.The purpose of this study was to examine inter-individual differences in aerobic fitness and cognitive responses to a 6-month aerobic exercise intervention in community-dwelling older adults with mild-to-moderate dementia due to AD.Methods:This study was a secondary analysis of the Effects of Aerobic Exercise for Treating Alzheimer’s Disease(FIT-AD)trial data.Aerobic fitness was measured by the shuttle walk test(SWT),the 6-min walk test(6MWT),and the maximal oxygen consumption(VO2max)test,and cognition by the AD Assessment Scale-Cognition(ADAS-Cog).Inter-individual differences were calculated as the differences in the standard deviation of 6-month change(SDR)in the SWT,6MWT,VO2max,and ADAS-Cog between the intervention and control groups.Results:Seventy-eight participants were included in this study(77.4±6.3 years old,mean±SD;15.7±2.8 years of education;41%were female).VO2max was available for 26 participants(77.7±7.1 years old;14.8±2.6 years of education;35%were female).The SDR was 37.0,121.1,1.7,and 2.3 for SWT,6MWT,VO2max,and ADAS-Cog,respectively.Conclusion:There are true inter-individual differences in aerobic fitness and cognitive responses to aerobic exercise in older adults with mild-tomoderate dementia due to AD.These inter-individual differences likely underline the inconsistent cognitive benefits in human studies.     

Within- and Between-Day Repeatability and Variability in Children's Physiological Responses During Submaximal Treadmill Exercise

The purpose of this study was to verify within- and between-day repeatability and variability in children's oxygen uptake (VO₂), gross economy (GE; VO₂ divided by speed) and heart rate (HR) during treadmill walking based on self-selected speed (SS). Fourteen children (10.1 ± 1.4 years) undertook three testing sessions over 2 days in which four walking speeds, including SS were tested. Within- and between-day repeatability were assessed using the Bland and Altman method, and coefficients of variability (CV) were determined for each child across exercise bouts and averaged to obtain a mean group CV value for VO₂, GE, and HR per speed. Repeated measures analysis of variance showed no statistically significant differences in within- or between-day CV for VO₂, GE, or HR at any speed. Repeatability within- and between-day for VO₂, GE, and HR for all speeds was verified. These results suggest that submaximal VO₂ during treadmill walking is stable and reproducible at a range of speeds based on children's SS.     

The effects of maximal and submaximal arm crank ergometry and cycle ergometry on postural sway

Abstract

This study aimed to determine whether arm crank ergometry (ACE) disturbed postural sway to the same extent as cycle ergometry (CE). Nine healthy, none specifically trained adults undertook posturographic tests before and after five separate exercise trials consisting of: two incremental exercise tests to exhaustion for ACE and CE to examine postural sway responses to maximal exercise and to determine peak power output (W_max); two subsequent tests of 30 min duration for ACE and CE at a relative workload corresponding to 50% of the ergometer-specific W_max (ACE_rel; 53 ± 8 W and CE_rel; 109 ± 16 W). A final CE trial was performed at the same absolute power output (CE_abs) as the submaximal ACE trial to match absolute exercise intensity (i.e., 53 ± 8 W). The centre of pressure (COP) displacement was recorded using a force platform before, immediately after exercise and during a 30-min recovery period. ACE had no effects on postural sway (P > 0.05). An increase in mediolateral COP displacement was observed following maximal CE only (P = 0.001), while anteroposterior COP displacement and COP path length increased following maximal and submaximal CE (P < 0.05). These differences in postural sway according to exercise mode likely stem from the activity of postural muscles when considering that CE recruits lower limb muscles involved in balance. This study provides evidence of an exercise mode which does not elicit post-exercise balance impairments, therefore possesses applications to those at an increased risk of falling.     

A Modified Submaximal Cycle Ergometer Test Designed to Predict Treadmill VO2max

This study sought to develop a modified submaximal cycle ergometer test designed to predict maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max) obtained on a treadmill. Volunteers (N = 156; women = 80, men = 76) with ages from 18 to 39 years old successfully performed a submaximal cycle protocol on a stationary cycle ergometer and a maximal graded exercise test (GXT) on a treadmill. Open circuit calorimetry was used during the GXT to measure VO_2max. Multiple linear regression resulted in the following prediction equation: VO_2max = 85.447 + 9.104 χSex (0 = women; 1 = men) - 0.2676 χAge (year) - 0.4150 χBody Mass (kg) + 0.1317 χPower Output (W) - 0.1615 χHeart Rate (bpm), which had acceptable validity (r = .88, standard error of estimate [SEE] = 3.12 ml· kg^-1 · min^-1). Selected participants (n = 34) performed the submaximal cycle ergometer test twice (within a 5-day period), yielding a test-retest intraclass reliability coefficient of r = .95 for VO_2max estimations across days. The reliability of VO_2max estimates for women (r = .93) was greater than that for men (r = .74). Cross-validation results were also acceptable using predicted residual sum of squares (PRESS; r^PRESS = .87, SEE^PRESS = 3.24 ml · kg^-1 min^-1), which suggests that the new equation should yield acceptable accuracy when it is applied to a similar, but independent sample of adults. In summary, the modified cycle ergometer test developed in this study yields relatively accurate estimates of treadmill VO_2max in young adults, requires only a moderate level of exertion, and appears to be a convenient and time-efficient means of estimating cardiorespiratory fitness.     

Relationship between laboratory-measured variables and heart rate during an ultra-endurance triathlon

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between the performance heart rate during an ultra-endurance triathlon and the heart rate corresponding to several demarcation points measured during laboratory-based progressive cycle ergometry and treadmill running. Less than one month before an ultra-endurance triathlon, 21 well-trained ultra-endurance triathletes (mean +/- s: age 35 +/- 6 years, height 1.77 +/- 0.05 m, mass 74.0 +/- 6.9 kg, = 4.75 +/- 0.42 l x min(-1)) performed progressive exercise tests of cycle ergometry and treadmill running for the determination of peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), heart rate corresponding to the first and second ventilatory thresholds, as well as the heart rate deflection point. Portable telemetry units recorded heart rate at 60 s increments throughout the ultra-endurance triathlon. Heart rate during the cycle and run phases of the ultra-endurance triathlon (148 +/- 9 and 143 +/- 13 beats x min(-1) respectively) were significantly (P < 0.05) less than the second ventilatory thresholds (160 +/- 13 and 165 +/- 14 beats x min(-1) respectively) and heart rate deflection points (170 +/- 13 and 179 +/- 9 beats x min(-1) respectively). However, mean heart rate during the cycle and run phases of the ultra-endurance triathlon were significantly related to (r = 0.76 and 0.66; P < 0.01), and not significantly different from, the first ventilatory thresholds (146 +/- 12 and 148 +/- 15 beats x min(-1) respectively). Furthermore, the difference between heart rate during the cycle phase of the ultra-endurance triathlon and heart rate at the first ventilatory threshold was related to marathon run time (r = 0.61; P < 0.01) and overall ultra-endurance triathlon time (r = 0.45; P < 0.05). The results suggest that triathletes perform the cycle and run phases of the ultra-endurance triathlon at an exercise intensity near their first ventilatory threshold.     

Maximal and submaximal physiological responses to adaptation to deep water running

Abstract

The aim of the study was to compare physiological responses between runners adapted and not adapted to deep water running at maximal intensity and the intensity equivalent to the ventilatory threshold. Seventeen runners, either adapted (n = 10) or not adapted (n = 7) to deep water running, participated in the study. Participants in both groups undertook a maximal treadmill running and deep water running graded exercise test in which cardiorespiratory variables were measured. Interactions between adaptation (adapted vs. non-adapted) and condition (treadmill running vs. deep water running) were analysed. The main effects of adaptation and condition were also analysed in isolation. Runners adapted to deep water running experienced less of a reduction in maximum oxygen consumption ([Vdot]O_2max) in deep water running compared with treadmill running than runners not adapted to deep water running. Maximal oxygen consumption, maximal heart rate, maximal ventilation, [Vdot]O₂ at the ventilatory threshold, heart rate at the ventilatory threshold, and ventilation at the ventilatory threshold were significantly higher during treadmill than deep water running. Therefore, we conclude that adaptation to deep water running reduces the difference in [Vdot]O_2max between the two modalities, possibly due to an increase in muscle recruitment. The results of this study support previous findings of a lower maximal and submaximal physiological response on deep water running for most of the measured parameters.     

Effect of Mouthguard Use on Metabolic and Cardiorespiratory Responses to Aerobic Exercise in Males

Purpose: This study investigated the physiological effects of wearing a mouthguard during submaximal treadmill exercise. Method: Twenty-four recreationally active males (M_age = 21.3 ± 2.4 years, M_height = 1.78 ± 0.06 m, M_weight = 81.9 ± 10.6 kg, M_{body mass index} = 25.8 ± 3.4 kg·m^?2) performed incremental, continuous exercise at 2, 4, 6, and 8 mph (3.2, 6.4, 9.7, 12.9 kph) for 5 min at each speed on a motor-driven treadmill on 2 separate occasions in a randomized, crossover, counterbalanced design while wearing or not wearing a self-adaptable “boil and bite” mouthguard. Respiratory rate (RR), tidal volume (V_T), ventilation (V_E), oxygen consumption (VO₂), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and heart rate (HR) data were averaged during the last 60 s of each exercise stage; blood lactate (LA) was measured before exercise and 3 min and 10 min following exercise. Results: Repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed that mouthguard use failed to alter the response of RR, V_T, V_E, VO₂, RER, and HR to treadmill exercise (p > .05), although each variable did increase in magnitude as a result of increasing treadmill speed (p < .001). Although increasing to above resting values at both 3 min and 10 min (p < .001) after cessation of exercise, LA levels also displayed no differences with mouthguard use (p > .05). Conclusion: Despite predictable increases in respiratory, metabolic, and cardiovascular variables in response to incremental exercise, the presence of a mouthguard failed to affect the magnitude or nature of these physiological responses.     

Children-Adult Comparisons of VO2 and HR Kinetics during Submaximum Exercise

Abstract

Oxygen uptake (VO₂) and heart rate (HR) kinetics for submaximum exercise were compared in prepubescent boys (mean age ± SD = 10.2 ± 1.28 years, N = 21) and adult men (30.0 ± 5.64 years, N = 21). Standard open circuit spirometric techniques were used to determine _VO2 and a bipolar ECG was used to measure HR. The kinetics of VO₂ and HR were determined for each subject using graphic procedures. Subjects performed submaximum exercise on the bicycle ergometer at an intensity of 42 ± 1.3% (mean ± SE) of VO₂ max for the children and 39 ± 0.7% of VO₂ max for the adults (p = .07). There were no group differences in VO₂ t1/2 (children t1/2 = 18.5 ± 0.75 secs and adults t1/2 = 17.4 ± 0.39 secs, p = .18) and HR t1/2 (children t1/2 = 11.4 ± 1.86 secs and adults t1/2 = 13.6 ± 1.66 secs, p = .38). These data suggest that children and adults do not differ in cardiorespiratory adjustments during low intensity exercise. This is in contrast to suggestions of other investigators that children have a faster cardiovascular adjustment to exercise.     

Transient VO2 Characteristics in Children at the Onset of Steady-Rate Exercise

Abstract

The transient oxygen uptake (VO₂) response during the initial phase of exercise was investigated in 28 children (mean age ± SD = 10.2 ± 2.28 years) during constant load submaximum bicycle ergometer exercise (mean power output ± SD = 56 ± 4.0 watts; mean VO₂ ± SD = .92 ± .141 [mdot] min^-1). The VO₂ half-time (VO₂ - t½) averaged (± SD) 34.8 (± 12.70) sec which is similar to that observed in adults. Examination of the VO₂-t ½ response as it related to age (7 to 14 years) showed that younger children attained steady-rate VO₂ more quickly than older children (r = .77 between age and VO₂-t½, P < .05). Body size, maturational level, exercise intensity, cardiorespiratory factors, and anaerobic potential are suggested as possible factors accounting for the positive age vs VO₂-t ½ relationship.     

Temporal Aspects of the VO2 Response at the Power Output Associated with VO2peak in Well Trained Cyclists—Implications for Interval Training Prescription

Abstract

The power output achieved at peak oxygen consumption (VO ₂Peak) and the time this power can be maintained (i. e., Tmax) have been used in prescribing high-intensity interval training. In this context, the present study examined temporal aspects of the VO₂ response to exercise at the cycling power that output well trained cyclists achieve their VO ₂peak (i. e., Pmax). Following a progressive exercise test to determine VO ₂peak, 43 well trained male cyclists (M age = 25 years, SD = 6; M mass = 75 kg, SD = 7; M VO₂ peak = 64.8 ml-kg¹ min^?1, SD = 5.2) performed two Tmax tests 1 week apart. Values expressed for each participant are means and standard deviations of these two tests. Participants achieved a mean VO ₂peak during the Tmax test after 176 s (SD = 40; M = 74% of Tmax, SD = 12) and maintained it for 66 s (SD = 39; M = 26% of Tmax, SD = 12). Additionally, they obtained mean 95% of VO ₂peak after 147 s (SD = 31; M = 62% of Tmax, SD = 8) and maintained it for 95 s (SD = 38; M = 38 % of Tmax, SD = 8). These results suggest that 60–70 % of Tmax is an appropriate exercise duration for a population of well trained cyclists to attain VO ₂peak during exercise at Pmax. However, due to intraparticipant variability in the temporal aspects of the VO₂ response to exercise at Pmax, future research is needed to examine whether individual high-intensity interval training programs for well trained endurance athletes might best be prescribed according to an athlete's individual VO₂ response to exercise at Pmax.     

Cardiorespiratory Response to Exercise on a Large Therapeutic Roll

Purpose

Large therapeutic rolls (LTR) and balls are popular rehabilitation tools and have also been advertised as cardiovascular training devices. The aim of this study was to determine if individuals of varying fitness levels would reach aerobic training levels by evidence-based standards as described in American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) publications.

Methods

Fourteen volunteers performed a maximal exercise test and on subsequent days, two submaximal exercise tests on the LTR (LTR-A and -B). LTR-A consisted of four 5-minute stages of exercise at progressive intensity levels. LTR-B included 20 minutes of continuous exercise. Oxygen consumption (VO₂) and heart rate (HR) during exercise on the LTR were compared with ACSM recommended standards.

Results

The average (range) peak intensity achieved during LTR-A was 66.8% (51.7-82.7%) of maximal VO₂ reserve (VO₂R) and 82.9% (70.7%-91.2%) of maximal heart rate (HR_max). During LTR-B, HR and VO₂ of all participants was maintained at moderate exercise intensity and averaged 56% of VO₂R and 78% of HR_max during the 20 minute exercise period.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that individuals with a wide range of aerobic fitness are able to reach and maintain aerobic training levels with appropriate exercise on a large therapeutic roll or ball.Key Words: large therapeutic roll, Swiss Ball, aerobic exercise, exercise intensity