Accuracy and Prediction in Throwing: A Taxonomic Analysis of Children's Performance

Abstract

The throwing and prediction performances of first, third and fifth grade boys and girls were analyzed within the framework of a four-part taxonomy originally conceived by Fitts (1965). Throwing performance was assessed under task conditions which varied the motion states of the thrower's body and the target (stationary or moving) by use of a dual pendulum apparatus. Accuracy scores were highest in a condition where both body and target were stationary, and lowest where both body and target were moving. Task conditions requiring motion of only target or of body were of intermediate difficulty, and scores for these tasks were not significantly different from each other. There was evidence of learning across trial blocks for all tasks, but no indication that rates of acquisition differed for the task types. Likewise, significant main effects were observed for age levels but no age X task type interactions were disclosed. Boys were more accurate than girls across task conditions, most noticeably on the two most difficult tasks. Comparison of subjects' ability to predict, from a stationary body position, the coincidence of the moving target with a standard reference point, and their ability to predict the coincidence of their moving body with the same reference point revealed lower error scores on the former prediction task.     

Movement Pattern and Parameter Learning in Children

Reduced feedback during practice has been shown to be detrimental to movement accuracy in children but not in young adults. We hypothesized that the reduced accuracy is attributable to reduced movement parameter learning, but not pattern learning, in children. A rapid arm movement task that required the acquisition of a motor pattern scaled to specific spatial and temporal parameters was used to investigate the effects of feedback (FB) frequency (100% vs. 62% faded) on motor learning differences between 19 school-age children and 19 young adults. Adults and children practiced the task for 200 trials under the 100% or faded FB condition on Day 1 and returned on Day 2 for a no-FB retention test. On the retention test, children who practiced with reduced feedback performed with greater temporal parameter errors, but not pattern error, than children who received frequent feedback. Motor skill learning in children is influenced by feedback frequency during practice that affects parameter learning but not pattern learning.     

Modelling the dynamics of children’s gross motor coordination

ABSTRACT

This study modelled children’s gross motor coordination, investigated sex-differences and identified the effects of fixed and dynamic correlates on motor coordination development. A total of 344 Portuguese children (170 girls), from 6 age cohorts (5 to 9 years of age), were followed consecutively for three years (age range 5 to 11 years) using a mixed-longitudinal cohort design. Birth weight, hand dominance and socioeconomic status (SES) were identified. Gross motor coordination, body mass index, physical fitness (PF) and physical activity (PA) were assessed annually. A sequence of multilevel hierarchical linear models were developed. Model 1 found that age, age², sex, sex-by-age and sex-by-age² were significant predictors (p < 0.05) of gross motor coordination. Boys outperformed girls from 6 years of age onwards. Model 2 found a cohort effect (p < 0.05). Model 3 found that right handers were more coordinated (p < 0.05). When the confounders of body mass index, PF and PA were added to the model (Model 4) it was found that boys and girls had parallel trajectories in their gross motor coordination development. In conclusion children with increasing body mass index were less coordinated, while those who were stronger and more agile had steeper trajectories of gross motor coordination with age.     

Decision-Making in Elementary School-Age Children: Effects upon Motor Learning and Self-Concept Development

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of variable decision-making teaching models upon the development of body coordination and self-concept of children in grades one through five. Students in two socioeconomically equivalent schools of a large, inner-city school system constituted the sample (N = 285) for this study. Intact classroom groups from the experimental school were randomly assigned to one of two experimental treatments. The control school did not receive any treatment. The experimental treatments consisted of two physical education programs which varied only in the type of teacher behavior exhibited. Cheffers' Adaptation of Flanders' Interaction Analysis System (Cheffers, Mancini, & Marlinek, 1980) was used to verify the two treatments used. The Schilling Body Coordination Test (Schilling & Kephart, 1976) was used to evaluate motor skill development, and the Marlinek-Zaichkowsky Self-Concept Scale (1977) was used to evaluate self-concept development. Results indicated that learners can be given decision-making responsibility within the physical education environment and, at the same time, maintain a level of motor skill achievement equal to that of learners who have not been allowed to make decisions within the learning environment. No conclusions could be drawn concerning the effects of student decision making upon self-concept development. Additional results indicated that the development of body coordination is a function of maturation, and that no relationship exists between self-concept and body coordination.     

Bidirectional relationships of physical activity and gross motor skills before and after summer break: Application of a cross-lagged panel model

Background:Gross motor skills are postulated to have a bidirectional relationship with physical activity(PA);however,no study has tested this relationship before and after a summer break.The purpose of this study was to examine the bidirectional relationships between school PA and gross motor skills in children before and after a summer break.Methods:Participants were a sample of 440 children recruited from 3 low-income schools(age=8.9±1.2 years,mean±SD).PA was assessed as average school-day step counts using Yamax DigiWalker pedometers(Yamasa Tokei Keiki,Tokyo,Japan)worn for 5 consecutive school days.Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development,3 rd edition.Data were collected at 2 timepoints:at the end of spring semester(T1)and at the beginning of the subsequent fall semester(T2).An age-and body mass index-adjusted cross-lagged model was employed to relate T1 school step counts with T2 gross motor skills and T1 gross motor skills with T2 school step counts.Results:T1 gross motor skills significantly predicted T2 school step counts(β=0.24,95%confidence interval(95%CI):0.08-0.40,p=0.003);however,Tl school step counts did not predict T2 gross motor skills(β=0.04,95%CI:-0.06 to 0.14,p=0.445).The model explained 35.4%and 15.9%of the variances of T2 gross motor skills and T2 school step counts,respectively.Additional analyses indicated that these relationships were driven primarily by ball skills.Conclusion:The relationship between gross motor skills and school PA was not bidirectional;however,higher gross motor skills,specifically ball skills,predicted higher school PA after a 3-month summer break.     

3~6岁幼儿气质类型与粗大动作发展研究

通过对100名幼儿进行气质类型和粗大动作发展水平测试,探讨3~6岁幼儿的气质类型与粗大动作发展特征及其相互关系。结果：（1）气质偏积极型的幼儿在粗大动作发展较好水平组的分布率较高,气质偏消极型的幼儿在粗大动作发展较差水平组的发生率较高;（2）两种气质类型幼儿在操作动作得分中存在差异,气质偏积极型幼儿的操作动作得分高于气质偏消极型的幼儿;（3）幼儿气质维度得分与粗大动作得分之间存在相关性,且此相关性在男、女幼儿中有显著性差异。结论：（1）气质偏积极型幼儿的操作动作发展好于气质偏消极型的幼儿;（2）幼儿气质维度与粗大动作发展水平之间存在相关性,且此相关关系具有性别差异。     

The Effects of Three Styles of Teaching on the Psychomotor Performance And Social Skill Development of Fifth Grade Children

Abstract

The effects of Mosston's teaching styles B, C and E were examined in terms of motor skill acquisition and social skill development of fifth grade children. Ninety-six children, randomly selected and randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups, were taught a hockey accuracy task. Motor performance data were collected prior to, midway through, and following training; they were analyzed within groups, to determine if learning was evident, and across groups, to examine the relative effectiveness of these three styles of teaching. Social behavior patterns observed during learner-to-learner interaction were also examined during a second task in which pairs of learners were asked to “help” each other learn the task. A 3 × 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that (1) all three groups learned the task and (2) they learned comparably well. It was concluded that these three styles of teaching are all effective in facilitating learning of this type of motor task. Style C, an arrangement in whcih learners work in pairs, one performing the task while being provided with formative feedback by the other, was found not only to produce comparable learning, but to significantly enhance social skill development on those behaviors associated with giving feedback and receiving it from a peer.     

Canonical Relationships among Perceptual-Motor,Perceptual, and Cognitive Behaviors in Children

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the nature and extent of relationships among perceptual-motor, perceptual, and cognitive behaviors in 189 young, normal children. An extensive battery of tests was administered to 61 prekindergarteners, 63 kindergarteners, and 65 first graders. Canonical correlation analysis revealed that significant and high relationships exist between perceptual-motor and perceptual behaviors at the two younger age levels, between perceptual-motor and cognitive behaviors at kindergarten only, and between perceptual and cognitive behaviors at all levels tested. In agreement with the literature, the magnitude of the relationships and amount of shared variance diminished with age from kindergarten to first grade, except for the cognitive and perceptual behaviors relationship. Visual behaviors were more important contributors to the perceptual-motor relationships than were auditory behaviors, while the reverse was found for contributors to the cognitive relationships. Fine perceptual-motor behaviors were more important for describing relationships than were gross perceptual-motor behaviors. In general, gross perceptual-motor behaviors were of little importance in explaining any significant relationship found in this study. Overall, the most consistent and important contributors to significant relationships among the various behavioral domains and subdomains included the Bender (fine), Shape-O-Ball (fine), discrimination (auditory perception), figure-ground (visual perception), alphabet, word recognition, and number-related tasks (cognitive). The single most consistent and important contributor was the fine perceptual-motor task, the Bender test.     

Reaction Time and Anticipation Time: Effects of Development

Abstract

The developmental nature of reaction time (RT) and anticipation timing (AT) performance, as well as the relationship between them, was investigated using 15 male and 15 female subjects at each of five age levels—7, 9, 11, 13, and 20 yrs. Each subject was given 40 trials for both RT and AT performance with task order counterbalanced. Results indicated that as age increased RT decreased, with males having more rapid RT than females. The two younger age groups differed from the three older groups on AT performance. RT was significantly correlated with AT (|CE| measure) for the 7, 9, and 11 yr old males but not in any other age by gender condition. Apparently neither young males nor young females have a good motor plan in memory to control AT performance. However, the more rapid RT (and thus better response initiation) of the males allows better AT performance at the younger ages. Beginning about 10–11 yrs of age, better motor plans are developed in children's memory system, leading to less reliance on rapid RT for good AT performance, and thus the correlation between RT and AT performance is not present.     

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Developmental Milestones and Movement: Results From the Gemini Cohort Study

Purpose: Variability in the timing of infant developmental milestones is poorly understood. We used a twin analysis to estimate genetic and environmental influences on motor development and activity levels in infancy. Method: Data were from the Gemini Study, a twin birth cohort of 2,402 families with twins born in the United Kingdom in 2007. Parents reported motor activity level for each of the twins at age 3 months using the Revised Infant Behavior Rating Scale and reported the ages at which they first sat unsupported, crawled, and walked unaided. Results: Activity level at 3 months and ages when first sitting and crawling were about equally influenced by the shared family environment (45%–54%) and genes (45%–48%). Genetic influences dominated for age when children took their first independent steps (84%). Conclusion: Aspects of the shared family environment appear to be important influences on motor activity levels and early milestones, although the timing of walking may have a stronger genetic influence. Further research to identify the specific environmental and genetic factors that promote early activity may be important for longer-term health outcomes.     

Movement Characteristics of Preschool Children

Abstract

School districts are required under Public Law 94–142 to find and serve handicapped children from age three. In part this is accomplished through screening programs in which parents are encouraged to have children evaluated. This study reports partial results of one such screening program which used the DIAL test, Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning (Mardell & Goldenberg, 1975a), which provided information on movement components and adds to the literature on the performance of preschoolers. The subjects, 610 boys and girls ages 2 years, 6 months to 5 years, 6 months, individually completed the seven tasks comprising each of the gross movement and fine movement components of DIAL. The sample is considered nonhandicapped because special education was later provided for less than 3% of the children screened. Data were divided by age, sex, and race (white, black). Separate MANOVAs and ANOVAs indicated female superiority in performance for fine movement, but a less clear picture for gross movement. Fine movement performance differences favored white subjects but results were also less clear for gross movement. Performance differences across age were primarily linear but with two or more higher order trends being significant for 13 of 14 fine and gross items.     

New Books Briefly Noted

Abstract

Little research has investigated the observational learning process from a developmental perspective. The purpose of this study was to extend previous research by considering two factors: performance versus learning and sequencing versus form scores. Children 'N = 60) comprising two age groups (5-0 to 6-11 and 8-0 to 9-11 years) were randomly assigned to verbal rehearsal only, model only, or model plus verbal rehearsal conditions. The task was a 6 part motor skill sequence in which proper sequencing and quality of form were assessed. A 2 × 3 × 4 (age group by model type by trial blocks) repeated measures MANOVA revealed a significant three-way interaction. Older children performed equally well under any of the model type conditions during both performance and learning. For younger children, a model plus rehearsal was superior to rehearsal only on sequence and form at performance and learning and superior to model only on sequence scores during the first two performance trial blocks. Model only and model plus rehearsal conditions were equally effective on form scores. These results suggest that age differences exist in the modeling of motor skills under conditions varying in model type, sequence and form scores, and performance and learning phases.     

Kinematics,coordination, variability,and biological noise in the prone flutter kick at different levels of a “learn-to-swim” programme

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to establish the characteristics of the movement patterns common to flutter kicking of skilled swimmers and to determine how the movement patterns of swimmers at different levels of a “learn-to-swim” programme differ from those of skilled swimmers. Also, the nature of the skill afforded the opportunity to investigate learning of a cyclical multi-joint task from a motor control perspective. The underwater motion of nine children representing three levels of a “learn-to-swim” programme and 10 skilled swimmers were video-recorded while performing nine cycles of prone flutter kicking. Kinematics including joint angular motion and coordination of joint actions were calculated. Fourier analysis was applied to determine the frequency composition of the vertical undulations of the hip, knee, and ankle and to calculate the velocity of the body wave travelling caudally from hip to ankle. Fourier analysis also enabled investigation of biological noise, as distinct from variability. The results indicated the desired joint angles and coordination towards which learners could be guided. An index based on the ratio of hip – knee and knee – ankle body wave velocities showed that the inter-joint coordination of most learners was not appropriate for effective flutter kicking. There was strong evidence to suggest that skilled performance in flutter kicking is characterized by sequencing of joint actions to produce a single sinusoidal body wave moving caudally with not decreasing and preferably increasing velocity, low biological noise, and small variability.     

The Relationship between Perceptual and Motor Abilities

Abstract

Eighty randomly selected kindergarten pupils were administered one of four figure-ground variations of a gross motor task in order to determine the effects of the various patterns on the performance of the task. All subjects were administered the figure-ground subtest of the Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception and the gross motor task which involved walking in a lateral direction between the rungs of a ladder placed in a horizontal position over a floor pattern. An analysis of variance revealed significant differences in the error-time performance among the groups. Pearson product-moment correlation techniques revealed significant relationships between the gross motor task and the Frostig test.     

动作发展视域下幼儿足球促进粗大动作发展水平研究

探讨幼儿足球对幼儿粗大动作发展水平的影响,为干预幼儿粗大动作发展提供依据。选取嘉兴市108名5~6岁幼儿为受试对象,以班级为单位随机分为干预组与对照组。干预组进行12周幼儿足球游戏活动教学,2次*40min/周;对照组幼儿为静态性的课堂班级活动。干预前后采用PGMQS测量幼儿位移能力、操控能力及平衡能力。采用独立样本t检验、配对样本t检验及协方差分析两组幼儿前后测结果的差异性。结果显示:①干预前,两组幼儿粗大动作发展水平无显著性差异(P>0.05);干预后,两组幼儿粗大动作发展水平存在显著性差异(P<0.05),干预组高于对照组。②干预组和对照组幼儿后测结果与前测结果间均存在显著性差异(P<0.05),后测结果高于前测。研究结果表明幼儿粗大动作发展存在延长效应,但结构化幼儿足球游戏活动明显提高了幼儿粗大动作发展水平。因此建议抓牢幼儿早期动作发展的敏感期,以动作发展为主线科学设计幼儿足球游戏活动并保证活动的顺利开展,为幼儿健康、全面发展奠定良好的基础。     

Skeletal maturation,fundamental motor skills and motor coordination in children 7–10 years

Relationships between skeletal maturation and fundamental motor skills and gross motor coordination were evaluated in 429 children (213 boys and 216 girls) 7–10 years. Skeletal age was assessed (Tanner-Whitehouse 2 method), and stature, body mass, motor coordination (Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder, KTK) and fundamental motor skills (Test of Gross Motor Development, TGMD-2) were measured. Relationships among chronological age, skeletal age (expressed as the standardised residual of skeletal age on chronological age) and body size and fundamental motor skills and motor coordination were analysed with hierarchical multiple regression. Standardised residual of skeletal age on chronological age interacting with stature and body mass explained a maximum of 7.0% of the variance in fundamental motor skills and motor coordination over that attributed to body size per se. Standardised residual of skeletal age on chronological age alone accounted for a maximum of 9.0% of variance in fundamental motor skills, and motor coordination over that attributed to body size per se and interactions between standardised residual of skeletal age on chronological age and body size. In conclusion, skeletal age alone or interacting with body size has a negligible influence on fundamental motor skills and motor coordination in children 7–10 years.     

External-Focus Feedback Benefits Free-Throw Learning in Children

Purpose: Considerable research supports the motor-learning advantage associated with an external focus of attention; however, very few studies have attempted to generalize these findings to children especially with attentional focus feedback. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of attentional focus feedback on motor learning in children. Method: Boys (n = 14) and girls (n = 14) aged 9 to 11 years old were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 gender-stratified groups: (a) internal-focus feedback or (b) external-focus feedback. Following initial instructions and task demonstration, participants performed 100 modified free throws over 2 days while receiving feedback statements respective to their attentional focus condition. Approximately 24 hr later, participants performed a retention test consisting of 20 additional free throws. Participants were also asked to respond to a retrospective verbal report at the end of each day to serve as a manipulation check. Results: Results of the analysis revealed a statistically significant learning advantage for participants receiving external-focus feedback, and retrospective verbal reports provide support for the self-invoking trigger and constrained action hypotheses. Conclusions: Future research should continue to incorporate retrospective verbal reports and explore potential causal links between internal attentional focus and self-evaluation.     

Developing Coincident Timing Skill in Children: A Comparison of Training Methods

Abstract

The present study attempted to determine whether the nature of training experiences influences the development of coincident timing skill in young children. The task involved visual tracking of a moving light sequence and a 43 cm arm movement to a padded target. Subjects attempted to tap the target coincident with the completion of the light sequence. Sixty first grade children were randomly assigned to one of five groups, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Subjects assigned to the training groups received 48 trials on each of two days, with stimulus speeds that were either slow (179 cm/sec or 4 mph), fast (313 cm/sec or 7 mph), varied-random (179, 224, 268, 313 cm/sec or 4, 5, 6, 7 mph), or varied-blocked (i.e., 6 consecutive trials with one speed before changing to another). Control subjects performed a neutral coloring activity during the training phase of the experiment. All subjects were then given 10 trials on a third day with each of two stimulus speeds not experienced previously; one slow (134 cm/sec or 3 mph) and one fast (358 cm/sec or 8 mph). During transfer trials all groups were more accurate with the fast than with the slow speed stimulus. Training method mattered most during slow speed transfer trials, with the most accurate performance demonstrated by the group receiving varied-blocked speeds during training. The least effective methods were fast speed training, especially for males, and varied-random speed training. It was concluded that training sessions for the development of coincident timing skill in young children should emphasize slower speed stimuli and blocking of additional speeds which are more rapid.     

改善不同类型学习困难小学生脑执行功能的运动干预方案开发与实证研究

目的：探讨分类研发的运动干预方案对不同类型学习困难小学生脑执行功能改善的有效性,进而为促进小学生脑执行功能健康发展提供可选择的精准运动干预方案。方法：依据运动干预改善小学生脑执行功能发展的多路径理论,针对不同类型学习困难小学生脑执行功能发育特征,分别开发"趣味游戏+花样跳绳+花样跑步"（针对语困小学生）、"合作游戏+武术操+花样踢毽"（针对数困小学生）、"篮球"（针对双困小学生）运动干预方案,采用2（组别：实验组、对照组）×2（类型：学困小学生、普通小学生）×2（时间：前测、后测）三因素混合实验设计,实验组实施10周的运动干预,对照组进行常规体育课内容,实验前、后采用脑执行功能测量工具全面评价不同类型学习困难和普通小学生的脑执行功能。结果：（1）从脑执行功能发育特征上看：语困小学生的刷新功能水平低于普通小学生,且具有非常显著性差异,抑制、转换功能与普通小学生无显著性差异;数困小学生的抑制功能水平低于普通小学生,且具有非常显著性差异,刷新、转换功能与普通小学生无显著差异;双困小学生的抑制功能、刷新功能和转换功能水平均低于普通小学生,且均具有显著性差异。（2）从运动干预方案的有效性上看："趣味游戏+花样跳绳+花样跑步"方案能够有效改善语文学习困难和普通小学生的刷新功能;"合作游戏+武术操+花样踢毽"方案能够有效改善数学学习困难和普通小学生的抑制功能;"篮球"方案能够有效改善双困和普通小学生的抑制、刷新和转换功能。（3）从脑执行功能的改善效果上看："趣味游戏+花样跳绳+花样跑步"方案对语文学习困难小学生刷新功能的改善效果优于普通小学生;"合作游戏+武术操+花样踢毽"方案对数学学习困难小学生抑制功能的改善效果优于普通小学生;"篮球"方案对双困小学生抑制、刷新和转换功能的改善效果优于普通小学生。结论：（1）语文学习困难小学生刷新功能发育水平低于普通小学生,数学学习困难小学生抑制功能发育水平低于普通小学生,双困小学生抑制、刷新、转换功能发育水平均低于普通小学生。（2）分类开发的运动干预方案能够针对性的、有效的改善不同类型学习困难小学生的脑执行功能,且改善效果优于普通小学生。