Videotape Replay and the Learning of Skills in Open and Closed Environments

Abstract

Female novice tennis players (N = 42) were randomly assigned to one of three videotape replay (VTR) conditions: Performance Information Feedback (PIF); Environmental Information Feedback (EIF); or a combination of both (PEIF) to ascertain whether the treatments differentially affected open (ground-strokes) and closed (serve) skills. Performance measures were obtained on a pretest and posttest as well as during session 4 and session 8. Cues appropriate to the VTR condition were employed to direct the subjects' attention. Two analyses were conducted: a MANOVA on the pretest/posttest improvement scores and a three factor ANOVA for the session 4/session 8 scores. For the first analysis, follow-up ANOVAs revealed that for forehand and backhand PEIF improved more than either PIF or EIF and that EIF improved more than PIF. For the serve PEIF improved more than PIF and EIF but the latter two were not significantly different. In the three factor ANOVA all main effects were significant: PEIF was better than EIF and both were better than PIF; serve scores were higher than those for groundstrokes; and session 8 scores were higher than those for session 4. In addition, all interactions except that for skill × session were significant. Based on the results it is recommended that in closed skills PEIF or PIF be used but not EIF and in open skills PEIF or EIF be used but not PIF. The results were also discussed with respect to the Gentile (1972)and Schmidt (1975) views on open and closed skills. While there is some support for Gentile's position it was concluded that further research is necessary.     

The Effect of Gradual Self-Control of Task Difficulty and Feedback on Learning Golf Putting

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of gradual self-control of task difficulty and feedback on accuracy and movement pattern of the golf putting sport skill. Method: Sixty students were quasi-randomly assigned to four groups under a varying combination of the two factors of task difficulty control (self-controlled or yoked) and feedback control (self-controlled or yoked). The participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control and self-controlled task difficulty group) that granted control over task difficulty in the acquisition phase were told they could choose any of the pre-set distances from the target. All groups were given 100% feedback in the first half of the acquisition phase, but the participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control group and self-controlled feedback) that could control their feedback were told that in the second half of the acquisition phase they would be able to ask for feedback when needed. The practice schedule of each member of the dual-factor gradual self-control group was used as a basis to plan the practice of predetermined distances and feedback presentation to the corresponding participants in the yoked conditions. Results: ANOVA with repeated measures showed that the practice method involving gradual self-control of two factors had a positive impact on accuracy and movement pattern of golf putting in the retention and transfer tests compared to other methods (p_s < .05). Conclusion: The advantages of self-control practice presumably come from better adjustment of challenge points by the learner in the course of the practice.     

Self-Controlled Amount of Practice Benefits Learning of a Motor Skill

Abstract

Self-control over factors involving task-related information (e.g., feedback) can enhance motor learning. It is unknown if these benefits extend to manipulations that do not directly affect such information. The purpose of this study was to determine if self-control over the amount of practice would also facilitate learning. Participants learned to throw a dart using their nonpreferred hand. The self-control (SC) group decided when to stop practice. The yoked group completed the same number of trials as their SC counterparts. Results revealed the SC group was more accurate during transfer and in recalling the number of trials completed. These findings indicate that self-control benefits extend to factors that do not directly alter task-related information.     

运动技能学习中追加反馈的研究进展

追加反馈是指在运动中或运动后提供给一个个体或一类个体的外部知觉反馈的任何形式。追加反馈是运动 技能学习过程中实施控制的媒介,它包括结果反馈和表现反馈。研究不同类型的追加反馈及其作用,可以使运动技能 学习过程达到最优化。     

追加反馈的研究及展望

运用文献综述的研究方法,探讨与分析了运动技能学习中追加反馈的分类问题以及追加反馈对运动技能学习的影响。回顾追加反馈研究的历史和现状发现,结果反馈的研究较多,操作反馈的研究较少,指出今后应在进一步研究结果反馈的基础上加强操作反馈的研究。     

Decreasing the Proportion of Self-Control Trials During the Acquisition Period Does Not Compromise the Learning Advantages in a Self-Controlled Context

The present experiment examined the learning effects of participants self-controlling their receipt of knowledge of results (KR) on all or half of their acquisition trials (50%). For participants who were provided 50% self-control, the first half of their acquisition period consisted of receiving KR on all trials, or according to a faded-KR schedule. Participants practiced a sequential timing task. The results showed that independent of practice condition, participants who self-controlled their KR during the acquisition period demonstrated superior performance compared to the respective yoked conditions in the retention and transfer portion of the experiment. These results extend previous research by suggesting that decreasing the proportion of self-control trials does not compromise learning in a self-controlled context.     

Feedback After Good Trials Enhances Learning

Recent studies (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002, 2005) have shown that learners prefer to receive feedback after they believe they had a “good” rather than “poor”trial. The present study followed up on this finding and examined whether learning would benefit if individuals received feedback after good relative to poor trials. Participants practiced a task that required them to throw beanbags at a target with their nondominant arm. Vision was prevented during and after the throws. All participants received knowledge of results (KR) on three trials in each 6-trial block. While one group (KR good) received KR for the three most effective trials in each block, another (KR poor) received feedback for the three least effective trials in each block. There were no group differences in practice. However, the KR good group showed learning advantages on a delayed retention test (without KR). These results demonstrated that learning is facilitated if feedback is provided after good rather than poor trials. The findings are interpreted as evidence for a motivational function of feedback.     

Post-Knowledge of Results Delay: Effects of Interpolated Activity on Learning and Performance

Abstract

The present experiment investigated the effects of interpolated processing activity (IPA) during the post knowledge of results (KR) interval. The study attempted to correct some of the problems inherent in previous research by using a ballistic timing criterion task and assessing the effects of interpolated processing activity (IPA) on both acquisition and No KR transfer trials. To insure that the efficacy of the IPA manipulation, a paced task was used and performance was assessed. Two levels of post-KR delay (5 and 10 s) were factorially combined with two levels of IPA (IPA or No IPA) to yield four experimental groups. Each subject completed 30 KR acquisition trials and 20 No KR transfer trials. Interresponse interval was held constant. In contrast to many previous studies, IPA interfered with the subjects' ability to learn and perform the criterion movement time of 150 ms. Both the memory trace and the perceptual trace were similarly affected. The detrimental effects of IPA on absolute error and objective-subjective error differences found during acquisition persisted during KR withdrawal.     

Reliability of 5-km Running Performance in a Competitive Environment

The aim of this study was to examine the reliability of a 5-km time-trial during a competitive outdoor running event. Fifteen endurance runners (age = 29.5 ± 4.3 years, height = 1.75 ± 0.08 m, body mass = 71.0 ± 7.1 kg, 5-km lifetime personal best = 19:13 ± 1:13 minutes) completed two competitive 5-km time-trials over 2 weeks. No systematic differences in run time between Trial 1 and Trial 2 were reported (Trial 1: 1,217 ± 85 sec, 95% CI [1,170, 1,264]; and Trial 2: 1,216 ± 79 sec, [1,172 to 1,260], p = .855). Absolute reliability, expressed as the typical error (TE; 14.7 sec, 95% CI = 11.3–21.4 sec) and coefficient of variation (CV; 0.95 ± 0.65%, [0.59–1.31]) confirms the reliability of 5-km running performance in a competitive time trial.     

体育与健康课程运动参与学习评价效能研究

将运动参与学习作为基本的研究对象,融合教育学理论和心理学理论,以大学生体育教学新课标为依据,实现教学评价主体的多元化,建立起一套运动参与评价体系,从而推进大学生体育教学评价课程改革,为高校体育教学的发展提供理论基础。     

Mental and Psychomotor Task Performance in an Open Ocean Underwater Environment

Abstract

A form for student evaluation of instructional effectiveness was developed and evaluated. The form included two sections: (1) an 18-item section designed to evaluate each of six dimensions of instruction, and (2) an 8-item section designed to assess course outcomes. Analysis of 1382 completed forms from 66 sections of 25 different types of lifetime sports classes demonstrated: (1) alpha coefficients of five of the six scales representing the dimensions of instruction ranged from .68 to .83; (2) ratings on instructional methods were predictive of satisfaction with the instructor and course, but none were predictive of progress toward course objectives (participation, competence and attitude); and (3) enthusiasm for the subject matter, and sensitivity to class progress were most predictive of course outcomes. Followup questionnaires from students who had been enrolled in highly rated classes yielded significantly higher scores on participation and teaching activity levels as well as satisfaction with the course and instructor than questionnaires from those who had been enrolled in low rated classes. Potential for elimination of items to develop a shorter survey form was explored.     

Age and Sex Differences in Motor Performance of 3 through 6 Year Old Children

Abstract

This study examined the relationship of age and sex to the performance of 3, 4, 5, and 6 year olds on seven motor performance test items. Although significant age and sex differences were found on most of the motor tests, it appears that age generally was related more to performance than was gender. Overall, change with age was fairly linear except perhaps for balancing and a general tapering in improvement in the 5 to 6 year old category. On the tests of throwing and balancing, gender was as important as age, or more so, in its relationship to performance. Boys were superior to girls at all ages on the throwing tests; girls were superior to boys at age 6 on the Balance test. Gender differences of a lesser magnitude were found on the Speed Run and Standing Long Jump tests with the performance of boys generally being superior to the performance of girls. Thus, it appears that gender differences in motor performance occur as early as the preschool years. Interestingly, except for the Balance test, on all the tests the 3 and 4 year old boys performed similarly and the 5 and 6 year old boys performed similarly. For the girls there were more significant differences from year to year in performance, with the data generally indicating at least three distinct skill groups for girls from age 3 to 6.     

球类比赛数学模拟竞技诊断的理论与实践--以乒乓球比赛分析为例

介绍了球类比赛数学模拟竞技诊断的理论与方法,并用乒乓球比赛的数学模拟竞技诊断实例进行了说明。数学模拟竞技诊断的基本思想是用一个比赛状态(技术或战术)转移概率矩阵概括地描述一场球类比赛,在此基础上通过马尔可夫链计算比赛获胜概率并进一步确定各种比赛状态(技术或战术)的竞技效率值。与传统的球类比赛分析方法相比较,数学模拟竞技诊断不但能通过各种比赛状态的转移概率对技、战术进行描述性统计分析,而且能确定各种比赛状态(技术或战术)对整场比赛获胜概率的影响。     

竞技表现过程调控的特点及方式

体育比赛中,竞技表现过程是相对可以调控的。调控的过程是动态与静态的统一;是有限与无限的统一。从系统的结构分析,调控的方式包括：边界调控、要素调控、途径调控和环境调控,它们之间是相互作用、相互依赖的关系。从系统辩证的角度认识它们,对运动训练实践有重要的理论指导意义。     

普通高校足球选项课的教学环境对技术学习影响因素研究

文章运用文献资料研究方法、调查问卷法、逻辑分析法等研究方法,通过对山西省部分普通高校参加足球选项课的男生进行问卷调查,分别从班级规模、学习氛围、教学设施、季节气候等方面的教学环境进行调查并分析其影响因素,以期为提高学生对技术学习过程的认识、改善已有的教学观念、改进教学方式、优化普通高校足球选项课中技术教学过程提供参考依据。     

Self-controlled amount and pacing of practice facilitate learning of a sequential timing task

ABSTRACT

Allowing learners to control the number of practice trials has been shown to facilitate motor learning (Lessa & Chiviacowsky, 2015; Post et al., 2011; 2014). However, it is uncertain the extent to which prior findings were influenced by the combined effects of allowing participants to control both the pacing- and amount-of-practice. The present study examined the independent effects of self-controlled amount- and pacing-of-practice on learning a sequential timing task. Participants were assigned to a self-controlled-amount-of-practice (SCA), self-controlled-pacing-of-practice (SCP), yoked-amount-of-practice (YKA), or a yoked-pacing-of-practice (YKP) group. Participants completed acquisition, immediate retention/transfer and delayed retention/transfer. During acquisition, SCA controlled the number of acquisition blocks completed with a fixed inter-trial interval while SCP controlled the inter-trial interval with a fixed number of blocks. Yoked groups were matched to a self-control counterpart so the amount (YKA) and pacing (YKP) were equivalent. Self-control groups demonstrated lower absolute constant error during immediate-retention and lower absolute constant error and variable error during delayed retention (p < .05). For intrinsic motivation, SCA scored significantly higher than SCP for the subscale Interest/Enjoyment (p < .05). Findings indicated that self-control, regardless of type, facilitated motor learning. Further work is needed to continue to examine the relationship between controlling the amount and pacing of practice on skill acquisition.     

Self-controlled learning benefits: exploring contributions of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation via path analysis

Research has shown learning advantages for self-controlled practice contexts relative to yoked (i.e., experimenter-imposed) contexts; yet, explanations for this phenomenon remain relatively untested. We examined, via path analysis, whether self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation are important constructs for explaining self-controlled learning benefits. The path model was created using theory-based and empirically supported relationships to examine causal links between these psychological constructs and physical performance. We hypothesised that self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation would have greater predictive power for learning under self-controlled compared to yoked conditions. Participants learned double-mini trampoline progressions, and measures of physical performance, self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation were collected over two practice days and a delayed retention day. The self-controlled group (M = 2.04, SD = .98) completed significantly more skill progressions in retention than their yoked counterparts (M = 1.3, SD = .65). The path model displayed adequate fit, and similar significant path coefficients were found for both groups wherein each variable was predominantly predicted by its preceding time point (e.g., self-efficacy time 1 predicts self-efficacy time 2). Interestingly, the model was not moderated by group; thus, failing to support the hypothesis that self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation have greater predictive power for learning under self-controlled relative to yoked conditions.     

优秀田径运动员参赛次数与运动成绩关系的探讨

通过对世界优秀田径运动员的运动成绩与比赛次数的统计分析,认为增加比赛 次数有助于提高运动成绩。     

The Influence of Feedback on Competence,Motivation, Vitality,and Performance in a Throwing Task

Purpose: The purpose of this work is focused on the study of the effect that feedback has on competence valuation, perceived competence, autonomous motivation, vitality, and performance in a throwing task. Method: Thirty-five college students (26 men and 9 women), without previous experience in the task, participated in this study. The students were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions (positive, negative, and lack of feedback). Results: The results of this study point out that only those who received positive feedback before the handball throwing task, in contrast to those who received negative feedback or did not receive any feedback, showed increased levels of competence valuation (p < .05, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.30), perceived competence (p < .001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.77), and autonomous motivation (p < .05, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.48). This group also presented higher levels of perceived competence (p < .001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.84) and subjective vitality (p < .001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.80) than the group who received negative feedback after the throwing task. Those who received positive feedback also showed a higher throwing speed at the end of task than those who received negative feedback (p < 0.001, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.71) or than those who did not receive any feedback (p < .05, Cliff’s delta effect size = ?.56). Conclusions: Competence valuation, perceived competence, autonomous motivation, subjective vitality, and throwing speed were favorably influenced by positive feedback. These results have important implications for the training style applied by coaches.     

力量素质与铁饼成绩的灰色关联分析

本文通过对天津体院男、女铁饼运动员,集训队部分男铁饼运动员以及优秀铁饼运动员张景龙的各项力量素质与铁饼成绩的灰色关联分析,找出了影响不同类型运动员铁饼成绩的主要优势因素;并通过对他们有关力量素质的对比分析,论述了各类铁饼运动员应有不同的中心训练任务和训练方法。