IMPROVING EXAMINING AT SIXTEEN PLUS

Data on 127 primary teachers and 95 secondary teachers, which included variables from extensive tests during their final year of training, from their college and pre‐college careers, and finally from their own ratings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with their current teaching posts was collected, together with ratings by their headteachers on various aspects of teaching ability. Analysis of the data suggests overall that this group of primary teachers tended to be less sensitive and more conventional in personality terms, of lower cognitive ability and to come from areas of denser population than the secondary teachers’ group. The secondary teachers, by comparison, tended overall to be more sensitive yet more tolerant in personality terms, of higher cognitive ability, to hold more ‘progressive’ educational attitudes and to express higher degrees of satisfaction with teaching. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

UNDERSTANDING DISPROPORTIONATE REPRESENTATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION BY EXAMINING GROUP DIFFERENCES IN BEHAVIOR RATINGS

The aim of the current study was to examine mean‐group differences on behavior rating scales and variables that may predict such differences. Sixty‐five teachers completed the Clinical Assessment of Behavior–Teacher Form (CAB‐T) for a sample of 982 students. Four outcome variables from the CAB‐T were assessed. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze variance components across three levels; examine mean‐group differences across outcome variables for student gender, race/ethnicity, and free or reduced‐price lunch status; and examine whether teacher variables predicted teacher‐specific differences in ratings. Results revealed that a significant amount of variance was attributable to teacher‐ and school‐level variables. Several mean‐group differences emerged, and some teacher‐specific differences in ratings across groups were predicted by teacher self‐efficacy for behavior management and teacher age, but not for teacher race/ethnicity, gender, or years of experience.     

EXAMINING THE USE OF SPACING EFFECT TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF INCREMENTAL REHEARSAL

Incremental rehearsal (IR) is a highly effective intervention that uses high repetition and a high ratio of known to unknown items with linearly spaced known items between the new items. It has been hypothesized that narrowly spaced practice would result in quick learning, whereas items that are widely spaced would result in longer‐term retention. The current study examined the effect of spacing by teaching vocabulary words to 36 fourth‐grade students. Each student was randomly assigned to a widely spaced IR condition (i.e., one unknown item, one known item, one unknown item, two known items, one unknown item, three known items, and an increase in the number of known items presented each time by one) or an IR condition in which spacing increased exponentially (IR‐Exp; i.e., one unknown item, one known item, one unknown item, two known items, one unknown item, four known items, and one unknown item, eight known items). The results indicated that the students in the study retained twice as much information with the widely spaced IR than with the IR‐Exp condition, but the latter required half as much time. IR and IR‐Exp were equally efficient, but IR continues to be superior to all other flashcard approaches in improving retention.     

美国扩张主义和孤立主义外交政策的关联

孤立主义和扩张主义是在美国历史上具有重大意义却又貌似迥蒸发量的两项重要外交政策。本文从美国历史、文化背景入手。通过对二者的分析和比较。得出它们是受“天赋使命”现和务实精神这两种美国传统文化影响，在特定历史时期为追求最大程度的国家利益而采取的不同手段的外交政策。同时揭示出二者相互渗透，互为作用共同服务于美国国家利益的紧密联系。     

EXAMINING SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PERSPECTIVES ABOUT SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Debate regarding the causes of specific learning disabilities (SLDs), precise definitions of SLDs, and the most effective identification methods has persisted for over 50 years. Two prominent schools of thought regarding SLDs exist: (1) biological perspectives and (2) environmental perspectives. Three identification methods are outlined in the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act of 2004 (IDEA, 2004) and align themselves to the different perspectives: (1) the IQ‐Achievement discrepancy method, (2) the response‐to‐intervention method, and (3) alternative research based procedures (e.g., evaluation of a student's pattern of strengths and weaknesses; PSW). This study used survey methodology (N = 471) and found that school psychologists’ perspectives about SLDs were significantly correlated with preferred identification methods. Preferred identification methods impacted practice even after controlling for individual‐ and school‐level variables. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

中国休闲学审视维度与基本含义研究状况

休闲是当今时代的一个极为重要的特征。关于休闲学的研究,学界由于所从事的专业学科,特别是审视维度不同,因而对其概念内涵的学术解读和学科理解可谓见仁见智,莫衷一是。一般而言,体闲学是以人的休闲心理动机、休闲需求观念和休闲行为方式等为研究对象,探索休闲与人的生命意义和体验价值,以及休闲与经济社会进步和人类文明之间的相互关系。学界关于休闲学的研究体现在基础理论与现实应用层面．呈现出多层次、全方位和宽领域有序进展的基本研究格局。     

TRAINING TEACHERS TO USE EVIDENCE‐BASED PRACTICES FOR AUTISM: EXAMINING PROCEDURAL IMPLEMENTATION FIDELITY

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which public school teachers implemented evidence‐based interventions for students with autism in the way these practices were designed. Evidence‐based practices for students with autism are rarely incorporated into community settings, and little is known about the quality of implementation. An indicator of intervention quality is procedural implementation fidelity (the degree to which a treatment is implemented as prescribed). Procedural fidelity likely affects student outcomes. This project examined procedural implementation fidelity of three evidence‐based practices used in a randomized trial of a comprehensive program for students with autism in partnership with a large, urban school district. Results indicate that teachers in public school special education classrooms can learn to implement evidence‐based strategies; however, they require extensive training, coaching, and time to reach and maintain moderate procedural implementation fidelity. Procedural fidelity over time and across intervention strategies is examined.     

EXAMINING POTENTIAL BIAS IN SCREENING MEASURES FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS BY SPECIAL EDUCATION AND LOW SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS SUBGROUPS

To provide timely and effective supports for students reading below grade level, schools require methods for quickly and accurately identifying those students in need. One method for identifying those students is through universal screening. Assessments such as oral reading fluency (ORF) and Maze reading comprehension are commonly used as screening assessments in middle grades. The current study examined ORF and Maze for evidence of bias across two subgroups known to be at increased risk for failure in reading: (a) students with learning disabilities and (b) students from low‐income households. Data from 4,215 students in the sixth (n = 1,126), seventh (n = 1,361), and eighth grades (n = 1,728) were analyzed. Results indicate no significant differences in predictive validity for students from low‐income households compared to students from middle and upper income households. For students with learning disabilities only 8th grade scores showed any evidence of bias compared to students without diagnosed disabilities. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

EXAMINING CONGRUENCE WITHIN SCHOOL–FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS: DEFINITION,IMPORTANCE, AND CURRENT MEASUREMENT APPROACHES

The purpose of this article is to explore the construct of congruence, particularly with regard to school–family collaboration and partnerships. An in‐depth review of the empirical and theoretical literature supporting a shift in focus from encouraging family involvement to creating effective school–family partnerships is presented, followed by an investigation into the construct of congruence and the methodological challenges it presents. The authors define congruence, discuss its role in creating and maintaining effective school–family partnerships, and critically review common approaches to measuring congruence and similar constructs. The implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.     

EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG CLASSROOM CLIMATE, SELF-EFFICACY, AND ACHIEVEMENT IN UNDERGRADUATE MATHEMATICS: A MULTI-LEVEL ANALYSIS

For nearly 50 years, leaders in American industry, military, education, and politics have focused considerable attention on STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education. Given the increased societal demand for STEM careers, the relationships among classroom climate, self-efficacy, and achievement in undergraduate mathematics needed to be examined. A purposeful sample of college algebra instructors (n = 15), employed at public 4-year universities in various states (n = 10) across the nation, was administered the Principles of Adult Learning Scale at the beginning of the semester to assess classroom climate. At the end of the course semester, their college algebra students (n = 326) were administered the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale-Revised and final college algebra examinations. The results of the multi-level analysis indicated: (a) students having higher mathematics self-efficacy also had higher mathematics achievement, (b) teacher-centered classroom climates had greater mathematics self-efficacy levels, (c) classroom climate was not a significant predictor of mathematics achievement, (c) classroom climate did not moderate the relationship between mathematics self-efficacy and achievement, and (d) although boys reported higher mathematics self-efficacy than girls, gender differences were not found to exist in regard to mathematics achievement.