L'ÉDUCATION MUSICALE POUR LA FORMATION D'UNE IDENTITÉ EUROPÉENNE PLURALISTE

This paper presents some of the elements which have been typical of music in different contexts and cultures, and describes an approach to musical phenomena which relates them to the intercultural and interdisciplinary dimension of lifelong education (music considered as a cultural good, an expression form, a field of creativity, an artistic production and an aesthetic experience). From the educational point of view, the aim is to form "multi-musical" individuals. In this framework are set the problem of musical identity and the need to spell out that identity in relation to stereotypes (popular music, classical music, folk music, etc.) and the differing shades of diversity. Particular attention needs to be given to the question of the universals seen in the psychology of music and the configuration of musical phenomena as structures which are organized hierarchically in several dimensions. In short, music in all its forms can help to form a dynamic, pluralist identity in the European context.     

DE L'INGÉNIEUR‐ARTISTE AU TECHNOLOGUE: PROCÉDURES DE SÉLECTION ET NOTATION DES ÉLÈVES À L'ÉCOLE DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES 1747–1851

During the long transition from the classical to the industrial era, the French engineering profession was gradually recognized as economically and socially important. This manifested itself in the creation of state engineering councils like the ‘Ponts et Chaussées’. The state engineering councils were also among the first to abandon the traditional methods of recruitment (connections and recommendations) in favour of meritocratic procedures. This evolution can be deduced from studies of the schools that prepared students for state engineering careers. The ‘Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées’, which was founded in 1747, is one of the most interesting in this respect. Here we can also observe the gradual change of the profile of the engineers, from the ‘artist’ of the Old Regime to the ‘technologist’ of the industrial era.     

L’ÉCOLE PUBLIQUE AU SÉNÉGAL : APPROCHE PSYCHOSOCIALE DES PRATIQUES PARENTALES DE (NON) SCOLARISATION ET DES EXPÉRIENCES ÉDUCATIVES DES ENFANTS

PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN SENEGAL: ANALYSING THE REASONS FOR (NON) ENROLMENT – This study focuses on Senegal, where the education system is split between traditional Koranic schools and purportedly “modern” public schools, which have been compulsory since 1990 but which are currently attended by only two-thirds of children eligible to enrol. The article argues that a number of psychosocial factors need to be studied in order to understand this issue fully. By analysing responses gathered from 20 parent-child units, the authors reveal: (a) how parental identity strategies affect how they choose to school their children, and (b) how children’s attitudes are shaped in different ways depending on whether they attend “traditional” or “modern” schools.     

LES MÉCANISMES DE FORMATION DES ÉLITES DE LA MAISON DE SAVOIE. RECRUTEMENT ET SÉLECTION DANS LES ÉCOLES MILITAIRES DU PIÉMONT AU XVIIIE SIÈCLE

From the 1730s to the 1760s, the Piedmontese state was characterized by an absolutist ideology supported by lawyers and administrators of bourgeois origin. They ruled the state and insisted on the primacy of public administration over private institutions. Gradually a rigid system of selection was set up based on talent and skills (excluding the notions of birth or seniority). The military schools, especially the Schools of Artillery established in 1739, played a very peculiar role as social laboratory. In fact, the whole Piedmontese army was affected by this complex phenomenon of social integration implied by meritocracy. This can even be observed within the institutions which were most concerned with rank prerogatives, such as the Royal Academy. So the military reform of 1775 was the result of a process which had been going on for quite some time in the Army.     

L'ÉTAT ET LA MÉDICALISATION DE L'ACCOUCHEMENT EN EUROPE OCCIDENTALE AU XVIIIÈ SIÈCLE. L'EXEMPLE DE L'OBSTÉTRIQUE∗

C'est au XVHIè siècle, et selon des modalités variables que l'accoucheur apparaît dans les pays d'Europe occidentale. Mais c'est en France sans doute que le rôle de l'Etat est le plus déterminant.

Par une campagne de dénigrement systématique, au nom de l'humanité souffrante et de la nécessaire protection des mères et des nouveau‐nés, les administrateurs et les médecins prétendent mettre un terme à l'exercice des accoucheuses traditionnelles, et limiter celui des sages‐femmes. A la routine des matrones, on substitue un corps de doctrine cohérent, et l'on entend faire disparaître les ‘superstitions’ du passé. Le projet serait louable, si le souci humanitaire ne débouchait de fait sur une attaque en règle de la société rurale, dont l'accoucheuse est l'un des supports.

Mais l'ambition des médecins et le souci de l'Etat de préserver les populations ne suffisent pas à expliquer l'importance d'un changement qui d'ailleurs ne s'effectue pas partout au même rythme: villes et campagnes, Europe du nord et du sud s'opposent. De fait, l'évolution des pratiques médicales n'est possible que parce que la demande de soins, le besoin de sécurité commençe alors à l'emporter sur toute autre considération.

     

MERITOCRATIE ET PROFESSION JURIDIQUE: LES SECRÉTAIRES DE LA CONFÉRENCE DU STAGE DES AVOCATS DE PARIS,UNE ÉTUDE DES PROMOTIONS 1860‐1870 ET 1879–1889

Through a prosopographical study of two generations of ‘secrétaires de la conférence du stage’ of Parisian barristers the author tries to determine the criteria for success in a field without meritocratic procedures of selection. In order to obtain this purely honorary title, candidates had to pass a rhetorical examination based on peer judgement. Social factors in this, after all, bourgeois profession did not play an important role in comparison with other official French ‘concours’. The admission to this club, nevertheless, was very important in order to get a good position at the Bar and in other legal professions or to enter politics. On the other hand, the efficiency of this network depended also on the economic climate, and a comparison between the two generations shows that the title did not cancel out personal shortcomings in periods when the historical setting was unfavourable, e.g. in the early years of the Third Republic.     

AUX ORIGINES DU SYSTÈME DE MÉRITE. FORMATION,RECRUTEMENT ET SÉLECTION DES OFFICIERS DE CHANCELLERIE DE QUELQUES GRANDES MAGISTRATURES PUBLIQUES ITALIENNES XVIIE‐XVIIIE SIÈCLES

This article is based on research into the procedures of competitive examinations for the enrolment of chancellery assistants in Milan, Venice and Bologna in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The growing success of candidats from the middle classes was the result of attempts to improve the quality of the office administration as well as to reduce the influence of the aristocracy. Quality, however, was only used as a selection criterion in the beginning of the candidates’ career; not when it came to promotion. So merit and political patronage were very closely related in this kind of “mixed system”. They were not only the main characteristics of the new Italian administrative machine, but also conditioned its subsequent development.