学术职业化与美国高等教育的发展

本文借鉴职业社会学的相关研究成果 ,通过探讨 16 36～ 1914年间 (特别是 19世纪后期 )美国学术职业化进程以及在这个过程中发挥作用的主要因素 ,分析了美国高等教育发展的内在动力机制。     

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADMINISTRATORS OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

The professional development of college and university administrators is a problem which receives attention in many discussions on the policy and planning of higher education. In this connection we give below information based on an article by Charles F. Fisher, Director of the Institute for College and University Administrators of the American Council on Education.     

UNIVERSITIES IN TRANSITION IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Universities in the United States of America are in a state of decline. Allocations, the proportion of knowledge taught, the proportion of research carried out, staff number, movement and salaries are all declining. Recognition of this situation has initiated studies of, and changes in, what they do in terms of value, quality and effective use of resources. Television is used extensively to relieve traditional faculty teaching load, enable faculty to maximise use of scarce resources and enhance the quality and coverage of knowledge. Developments in cable television, optical fibres, lasers and satellites herald a new era, pose a threat to the autonomy of universities and have initiated inter‐university competition for the same students as well as opening up new opportunities and markets. Substantial development has taken place in postgraduate studies and outreach.     

EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH AND WRITING OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY IN THE UNITED STATES(1)

For two decades, during the 1920s and 1930s, hundreds of communists and representatives of national‐liberation movements from all over the world came to Moscow to study at “Communist Universities"‐ educational institutions which were created, funded and controlled by the Communist International, an international communist organisation which united and directed the activities of the overwhelming majority of communist parties throughout the world from 1919 until 1943. Graduates returned to their countries equipped with theoretical and practical knowledge of revolutionary struggle.

The Comintern's universities must have had an enormous influence on the history of the 20th century but until recently virtually nothing was known about them. They operated under conditions of such strict secrecy that even decades later most of their graduates refused to speak about them. It was not known who studied at these universities, and when, and what was taught there. It took the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the Comintern archives to begin to understand the activities of educational affiliates of this organisation.

This article deals with one such institution, the Communist University of the Toilers of the East, and with one category of its students, namely students from African countries. The picture that emerges from the article gives the reader a clearer understanding of how Comintern universities operated and what the significance of their activities was.     

THE UNITED STATES: DEVELOPMENT OF THE TWO‐YEAR INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

In recent years, the development and continuing growth of two‐year, colleges have altered the traditional pattern of higher education in the United States. At the same time there is a substantial change in the age pattern of people going to colleges.

The information presented below reflects these developments.     

美丽的邮局

美国每一乡镇有邮局,有些非常小,你会发现它们设在商店的角落处,有些在大楼里。邮局每周五天以及周六上午营业,从周一到周五营业时间从上午8：30到下午4：30o     

ENROLMENT TRENDS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

A statistical report, “The Condition of Education 1976”, prepared by the Planning Office of the US National Centre for Education Statistics and submitted to the Congress of the United States in March 1976, also analysed the developments in US higher education concerning: - present and projected educational attainment of the labour force

- enrolment in higher education and its pattern

- age structure of students in US higher education institutions.

Data on these problems, presented mainly in graphical form, serves as the basis for the information below.     

COLLEGE CHEATING IN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES

This paper reports the results of a survey onacademic dishonesty given to samples of 392 American and276 Japanese college students in 1994 and 1995. Our datarevealed both cross-cultural differences and similarities in cheating behavior andattitudes. Compared to American students, Japanesestudents reported a higher incidence rate of cheating onexams, a greater tendency to neutralize (i.e., justify) cheating, and a greater passivity in theirreactions to the observed cheating of others. Amongcheaters of both nationalities, Japanese students ratedsocial stigma and fear of punishment as less effective in deterring cheating than did Americanstudents. Our data also revealed cross-culturalsimilarities. Among noncheaters of both nationalities,guilt was the most effective deterrent. Among cheatersof both nationalities, fear of punishment was the mosteffective deterrent. And students of both cultures,cheaters and noncheaters alike, viewed social stigma asthe least effective deterrent to cheating. In both cultures, most students react to cheating byignoring it, about one-third react by resenting it, andactive reactions (i.e., reporting the cheating orconfronting the cheater) were seldom reported.Explanations for cross-cultural differences are suggested,and implications of these findings for efforts to reducecheating are discussed.     

EMPLOYMENT PROBLEMS FOR GRADUATES IN THE UNITED STATES

In the United States, concern over unemployment and underemployment among graduates of higher education institutions has led to much debate over university‐level studies. The below information refers to this problem in relation to a recently published forecast of employment prospects for college graduates in the United States.     

HOLOCAUST AWARENESS AND EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Experimentation in Holocaust education began in American schools in the mid‐1970s. After construction of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., the subject gained momentum. The last two decades have seen continuous development. In five states, Holocaust education is required at all school levels; in sixteen others, it is highly recommended. Serious teaching of the Holocaust started in earnest only long after World War II, when the horrors were at a distance and survivors started breaking the silence. Only then did systematic research begin. Teaching about the Holocaust developed as a result of Holocaust consciousness and of the growing feeling of its relevance to American culture. Such instruction also developed against a background of ongoing public debate concerning the Holocausts uniqueness, a controversy that has found its way into various teaching programs.     

EDUCATIONAL ACCESS FOR WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES

Women were denied the right to an education for many years in the United States. This paper investigates the history of women in American higher education to identify points of access on the basis of this investigation, and to arrive at implications for women now and for the future. The paper contains a survey of the literature regarding women and higher education. Emphasis is placed on colleges for women, specifically Bryn Mawr and Wellesley. Comparisons between the two schools are made, and both are contrasted with Oberlin and the University of Michigan. Access for women at the community college level is discussed, because this is the entry point to higher education to which most women today have access.     

第三次浪潮:美国品德教育运动述评

20世纪初期以来的美国德育大体上经历了三大历史阶段 :品德教育的复兴是美国德育的第三次浪潮。品德教育运动具有强调正面和直接的道德教育 ,要求学校与社区、家庭在德育上的配合 ,以及努力促进青少年学以致用、践行道德价值以形成良好的品德等特征。目前美国品德教育运动的一个十分突出的努力是思考和探索什么是优质、高效的品德教育     

CALL FOR CHANGES IN UNIVERSITY CURRICULA IN THE UNITED STATES

Planning and development in university curricula is receiving attention in many discussions on the role of higher education in the context of lifelong education. The following article discusses this issue in the context of development trends in US higher education. It is an extract from an article entitled “A New American University?” which was written by Professor Steven Muller the President of Johns Hopkins University and the Johns Hopkins Hospital.     

xTHE QUALITY MOVEMENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Writing at a time when applications of Total Quality Management (TQM) in higher education in the United States are in great vogue, the author reminds the reader that TQM is only one of many management strategies that over the years have had their periods of popularity. Strategies come and go. Usually a hot strategy is in vogue for no more than seven years; then other ideas come into vogue as other ways of getting the quick fix are tried. Other strategies in competition with TQM in the United States include outcomes assessment, Deming's fourteen points, the Malcolm Baldridge Award, the ISO 9000 series, restructuring, re‐engineering, and performance indicators. American higher education institutions will probably have recourse to more traditional models than TQM for creating change in the future.     

FEDERAL POLICY AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

A new federal policy for higher education in the United States may be formulated in the coming months. Below we give extracts from an article stressing responsibility of US higher education to affirm the aims of education in the changing economic and political situation, written by Professor Norman Birnbaum, of Amherst College, Massachusetts.