Convergent validity of a novel method for quantifying rowing training loads

Elite rowers complete rowing-specific and non-specific training, incorporating continuous and interval-like efforts spanning the intensity spectrum. However, established training load measures are unsuitable for use in some modes and intensities. Consequently, a new measure known as the T2minute method was created. The method quantifies load as the time spent in a range of training zones (time-in-zone), multiplied by intensity- and mode-specific weighting factors that scale the relative stress of different intensities and modes to the demands of on-water rowing. The purpose of this study was to examine the convergent validity of the T2minute method with Banister’s training impulse (TRIMP), Lucia’s TRIMP and Session-RPE when quantifying elite rowing training. Fourteen elite rowers (12 males, 2 females) were monitored during four weeks of routine training. Unadjusted T2minute loads (using coaches’ estimates of time-in-zone) demonstrated moderate-to-strong correlations with Banister’s TRIMP, Lucia’s TRIMP and Session-RPE (rho: 0.58, 0.55 and 0.42, respectively). Adjusting T2minute loads by using actual time-in-zone data resulted in stronger correlations between the T2minute method and Banister’s TRIMP and Lucia’s TRIMP (rho: 0.85 and 0.81, respectively). The T2minute method is an appropriate in-field measure of elite rowing training loads, particularly when actual time-in-zone values are used to quantify load.     

High intensity and reduced volume training attenuates stress and recovery levels in elite swimmers

This study investigated the effect of increased high-intensity interval training (HIT) at the expense of total training volume on the stress and recovery levels of elite swimmers. Forty-one elite swimmers participated in the study and were randomly assigned to either a HIT or a control group (CON). Eleven swimmers did not complete the questionnaires. For 12 weeks both groups trained ~12 h per week. The amount of HIT was ~5 h vs. 1 h, and total distance was ~17 km vs. ~35 km per week for HIT and CON, respectively. HIT was performed as 6–10 × 10–30 s maximal effort interspersed by 2–4 min of rest. The Recovery Stress Questionnaire – Sport was used to measure the swimmers’ stress and recovery levels. After the 12 week intervention, the general stress level was 16.6% (2.6–30.7%; mean and 95% CI) lower and the general recovery level was 6.5% (0.7–12.4%) higher in HIT compared to the CON, after adjusting for baseline values. No significant effects could be observed in sports-specific stress or sports-specific recovery. The results indicate that increasing training intensity and reducing training volume for 12 weeks can reduce general stress and increase general recovery levels in competitive swimmers.     

Modeling parameters that characterize pacing of elite female 800-m freestyle swimmers

Pacing offers a potential avenue for enhancement of endurance performance. We report here a novel method for characterizing pacing in 800-m freestyle swimming. Websites provided 50-m lap and race times for 192 swims of 20 elite female swimmers between 2000 and 2013. Pacing for each swim was characterized with five parameters derived from a linear model: linear and quadratic coefficients for effect of lap number, reductions from predicted time for first and last laps, and lap-time variability (standard error of the estimate). Race-to-race consistency of the parameters was expressed as intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). The average swim was a shallow negative quadratic with slowest time in the eleventh lap. First and last laps were faster by 6.4% and 3.6%, and lap-time variability was ±0.64%. Consistency between swimmers ranged from low-moderate for the linear and quadratic parameters (ICC = 0.29 and 0.36) to high for the last-lap parameter (ICC = 0.62), while consistency for race time was very high (ICC = 0.80). Only ~15% of swimmers had enough swims (~15 or more) to provide reasonable evidence of optimum parameter values in plots of race time vs. each parameter. The modest consistency of most of the pacing parameters and lack of relationships between parameters and performance suggest that swimmers usually compensated for changes in one parameter with changes in another. In conclusion, pacing in 800-m elite female swimmers can be characterized with five parameters, but identifying an optimal pacing profile is generally impractical.     

Training load quantification in elite swimmers using a modified version of the training impulse method

Abstract

Prior reports have described the limitations of quantifying internal training loads using hear rate (HR)-based objective methods such as the training impulse (TRIMP) method, especially when high-intensity interval exercises are performed. A weakness of the TRIMP method is that it does not discriminate between exercise and rest periods, expressing both states into a single mean intensity value that could lead to an underestimate of training loads. This study was designed to compare Banister's original TRIMP method (1991) and a modified calculation procedure (TRIMPc) based on the cumulative sum of partial TRIMP, and to determine how each model relates to the session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE), a HR-independent training load indicator. Over four weeks, 17 elite swimmers completed 328 pool training sessions. Mean HR for the full duration of a session and partial values for each 50 m of swimming distance and rest period were recorded to calculate the classic TRIMP and the proposed variant (TRIMPc). The s-RPE questionnaire was self-administered 30 minutes after each training session. Both TRIMPc and TRIMP measures strongly correlated with s-RPE scores (r = 0.724 and 0.702, respectively; P < 0.001). However, TRIMPc was ～9% higher on average than TRIMP (117 ± 53 vs. 107 ± 47; P < 0.001), with proportionally greater inter-method difference with increasing workload intensity. Therefore, TRIMPc appears to be a more accurate and appropriate procedure for quantifying training load, particularly when monitoring interval training sessions, since it allows weighting both exercise and recovery intervals separately for the corresponding HR-derived intensity.     

A model study of optimal training reduction during pre-event taper in elite swimmers

The aim of this study was to assess responses to taper in elite athletes using computer simulations. Parameters of a non-linear model were derived from training and performance data over two seasons for eight elite swimmers. The fit between modelled and actual performances was statistically significant for each swimmer (r(2) = 0.56 +/- 0.06; P < 0.01). The simulations were used to estimate characteristics of step and progressive tapers that would maximize performance either (1) after regular training only or (2) after overload training of a 20% step increase in regular training for 28 days. The highest performance with a step taper was greater with than without prior overload training (101.4%, s = 1.6 vs. 101.1%, s = 1.4 of personal record; P < 0.01) but required a longer taper duration (22.4 days, s = 13.4 vs. 16.4 days, s = 10.3; P < 0.05). The optimal progressive taper led to a better performance only after the overload period (101.5%, s = 1.5; P < 0.001). Negative and positive influences of training were estimated as indicators of fatigue and adaptations to training respectively. During the optimal taper, the negative influence was completely removed, independently of the prior training, whereas the positive influence increased only after overload training. Our computer simulations show that the characteristics of an optimal training reduction in elite athletes depend on the training performed in the weeks prior to a taper.     

Monitoring seasonal and long-term changes in test performance in elite swimmers

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to characterize changes and variability in test performance of swimmers within and between seasons over their elite competitive career. Forty elite swimmers (24 male, 16 female) performed a 7×200-m incremental swimming step test several times each 6-month season (10±5 tests, spanning 0.5–6.0?y). Mixed linear modeling provided estimates of percent change in the mean and individual responses (within-athlete variation as a coefficient of variation) for measures based on submaximal performance (fixed 4-mM lactate), maximal performance (the seventh step) and lean mass (from skinfolds and body mass). Submaximal and maximal swim speed increased within each season from pre to taper phase by ～2.2% for females and ～1.5% for males (95% confidence limits ±1.0%), with variable contributions from stroke rate and stroke length. Most of the gains in speed were lost in the off-season, leaving a net average annual improvement of ～1.0% for females and ～0.6% for males (±1.0%). For submaximal and maximal speed, individual variation between phases was ±2.2% and the typical measurement error was ±0.80%. Step test and anthropometric measures can be used to confidently monitor progressions in swimmers in an elite training program within and between seasons.     

女游泳运动员大负荷训练中的情绪和应对方式

通过调查女游泳运动员 6周大负荷训练中的情绪和应对方式 ,了解她们在大负荷训练中的心理特点 ,为提高游泳运动员在大负荷训练中的心理承受能力提供依据。研究表明 ,女游泳运动员大负荷训练中的情绪变化受负荷总量变化的影响 ,优秀运动员在大负荷训练感受中肌体劳累 ,精神疲倦和自我怀疑百分数均高于普通运动员。在大负荷训练应对方式中 ,优秀运动员宣泄和回避的百分数低于普通运动员 ,自我激励 ,寻求他人支持 ,自我安慰 ,关注队友感受等维度的百分数高于普通运动员。提示在大负荷训练中 ,优秀运动员似乎更倾向采用积极应对方式。     

The effect of auditory stimulus training on swimming start reaction time

Task-specific auditory training can improve sensorimotor processing times of the auditory reaction time (RT). The majority of competitive swimmers do not conduct habitual start training with the electronic horn used to commence a race. We examined the effect of four week dive training interventions on RT and block time (BT) of 10 male adolescent swimmers (age 14.0 ± 1.4 years): dive training with auditory components (speaker and electronic horn) (n = 5) and dive training without auditory components (n = 5). Auditory stimulus dive training significantly reduced swimming start RT, compared with dive training without auditory components (p < 0.01), with a group mean RT reduction of 13 ± 9 ms. Four of the five swimmers that received auditory stimulus training showed medium to large effect size reductions in RT (d = 0.74; 1.32; 1.40; 1.81). No significant changes to swimmers’ BTs were evident in either dive training intervention. The adolescent swimmers’ results were compared against six male elite swimmers (age 19.8 ± 1.0 years). The elite swimmers had significantly shorter BTs (p < 0.05) but no significant difference in RTs. Auditory stimulus dive training should be explored further as a mechanism for improving swimming start performance in elite swimmers who have pre-established optimal BTs.     

Career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers: Benchmarks for talent development

Abstract

The age-related progression of elite athletes to their career-best performances can provide benchmarks for talent development. The purpose of this study was to model career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers to develop these benchmarks. We searched the Web for annual best times of swimmers who were top 16 in pool events at the 2008 or 2012 Olympics, from each swimmer's earliest available competitive performance through to 2012. There were 6959 times in the 13 events for each sex, for 683 swimmers, with 10 ± 3 performances per swimmer (mean ± s). Progression to peak performance was tracked with individual quadratic trajectories derived using a mixed linear model that included adjustments for better performance in Olympic years and for the use of full-body polyurethane swimsuits in 2009. Analysis of residuals revealed appropriate fit of quadratic trends to the data. The trajectories provided estimates of age of peak performance and the duration of the age window of trivial improvement and decline around the peak. Men achieved peak performance later than women (24.2 ± 2.1 vs. 22.5 ± 2.4 years), while peak performance occurred at later ages for the shorter distances for both sexes (～1.5–2.0 years between sprint and distance-event groups). Men and women had a similar duration in the peak-performance window (2.6 ± 1.5 years) and similar progressions to peak performance over four years (2.4 ± 1.2%) and eight years (9.5 ± 4.8%). These data provide performance targets for swimmers aiming to achieve elite-level performance.     

运用游泳水槽对水下潜泳腿打腿训练的分析与评价

通过水槽的水下摄像系统,对3名上海优秀运动员和4名一线运动员进行水下打腿动作测试录像,利用图像解析软件对技术录像进行分析,结果发现：优秀组队员的水下潜泳腿连贯性优于一线组队员;个性化的专项技术训练、能力训练、核心力量训练等有利于打腿能力的提高,为运动成绩的提高起到促进作用。     

游泳运动训练的生理、生化监控方法研究

采用实验测试法对国家游泳队运动员的生理生化监控方法进行研究。研究表明：游泳运动员血液生化指标的评价参考范围也表现出一定的性别和5个级别差异性；科学的高原训练计划可以提高运动员的有氧代谢能力；无氧酵解能力训练手段对不同优秀游泳运动员有着不同的影响；同一种磷酸原供能训练方法并非可以同时适合于不同的运动员；相同负荷训练后运动员成绩越好、恢复心率越快，则表明运动员机能状况越佳；单一生理生化指标并不能完全监控游泳周（阶段）训练后的恢复情况。     

中国优秀游泳运动员高原训练中的膳食调查报告

目的:研究我国游泳项目优秀运动员的膳食结构、营养状况及存在问题,提出营养保障措施。方法:对19名运动员进行为期3天的膳食调查,以及高原初期和后期的生化指标的测定,数据通过运动员营养软件统计处理进行分析。结果:30%的运动员总热能摄入量仅占推荐量的80%以下,尤其女运动员偏差较大,三大热源质比例为碳水化合物占41%,脂肪占42%;蛋白质占17%,三餐热能摄入比例不合理,蔬菜摄入总体显示不足。血象指标分析显示,血红蛋白提高者占63%,红细胞数提高者占68%,红细胞压积提高者占63%。运动员训练前、后体重变化平均在0.4～0.8kg之间,控体重的运动员血象指标出现下降的倾向,运动员平均摄水量为3.5l/d。结论:高原训练中,运动员的膳食监测和营养补充是提高运动能力的重要保障。     

Biomechanical analysis of the grab, track and handle swimming starts: an intervention study

This study examined the grab, track and handle swimming racing starts by elitelevel swimmers. Videography was used to analyse these starts before and after a period of dive start practice. Participants underwent 2-4 sessions weekly until 14 +/- 2 practice sessions were completed. Practice sessions comprised 5 grab starts (preferred technique) and 10 handle starts; or 5 grab starts and 10 track starts. The performance criterion measure was time to 10 m. Reaction, movement, block and flight times, flight distance, and the centre of mass at the set position were measured. No significant differences between dive groups in time to 10 m were revealed pre- or post-training. The training period further exaggerated the differences in centre of mass positions in the set position between the three techniques. The handle start revealed a significant change forward in the centre of mass that allowed for decreased movement and block times. The training period improved 10 m, reaction, movement, block and flight times irrespective of the technique used. Hence, regular dive start practice significantly improved the start performances of elite swimmers. Coaches should consider including regular dive practice sessions of approximately 15 minutes to improve dive start performances.     

Effect of the starting and turning performances on the subsequent swimming parameters of elite swimmers

In the present research, we examined the effect of the starting and turning performances on the subsequent swimming parameters by (1) comparing the starting and turning velocities with the swimming parameters on the emersion and mid-pool segments and (2) by relating the individual behaviour of swimmers during the start and turns with subsequent behaviour on each swimming lap. One hundred and twelve 100 m performances on the FINA 2013 World Swimming Championships were analysed by an image-processing system (InThePool 2.0®). At the point of the start emersion, the swimming parameters of the 100-m elite swimmers were substantially greater than the mid-pool parameters, except on the breaststroke races. On the other hand, no diminution in the swimming parameters was observed between the turn emersion and the mid-pool swimming, except on the butterfly and backstroke male races. Changes on the surface swimming kinematics were not generally related to the starting or turning parameters, although male swimmers who develop faster starts seem to achieve faster velocities at emersion. Race analysts should be aware of a transfer of momentum when swimmers emerge from underwater with implications on the subsequent swimming kinematics, especially for male swimmers who employ underwater undulatory techniques.     

高水平游泳运动员临界速度变化对中长距离自由泳成绩变化影响研究

目的:检验采用比赛数据计算高水平游泳运动员临界速度的可行性和有效性,探索高水平游泳运动员临界速度同比变化对中长距离自由泳成绩同比变化的影响,建立临界速度同比变化对高水平游泳运动员长距离自由泳成绩同比变化概率的预测回归模型。方法:收集2011-2018年中长距离自由泳项目(200~1500 m)世界游泳排名Top100的信息,采用距离-时间模型计算临界速度,用线性回归评估临界速度与中长距离游泳项目成绩的关系,使用逻辑回归(logistics)评价临界速度同比变化对成绩同比变化的影响。结果:临界速度可以分别解释200 m、400 m、800 m和1500 m自由泳成绩变化的76.8%、87.2%、90.7%和99.5%。当临界速度同比提高时,长距离项目(800 m和1500 m)成绩同比提高是成绩同比下降的30倍。当临界速度同比提高/下降1%~6%时,长距离项目(800 m和1500 m)成绩同比提高/下降的发生概率约为80%~100%。结论:采用比赛参数(比赛成绩和比赛距离)计算临界速度是可行和有效的;临界速度同比变化百分比(提高/下降)能预测成绩同比变化,是解释长距离自由泳成绩同比变化的关键因素。     

游泳运动员高原结合低氧预适应训练中监控内容与方法研究

高原结合低氧训练在游泳项目中的应用是传统高原训练新发展,拓展了高原和低氧训练的效益和功能,日益受到科研工作者和教练员的重视,而这种新训练方法中有效的科研监控内容和方法将是训练是否达到训练目标的重要保障。通过对上海游泳队10名优秀运动员2007—2008年期间3次高原结合低氧训练进行全程跟踪,对训练过程进行全面的科研监控,并对高原结合低氧训练的科研监控内容与方法进行探索与研究,基本建立了游泳项目高原结合低氧训练的科研监控内容与方法,这将为该训练方法在游泳项目中的应用提供有效帮助。     

优秀游泳运动员训练监控研究初探

在备战 2 0 0 0年第 2 7届奥运会期间 ,采用血乳酸、肌酸激酶等指标对国家游泳队优秀运动员进行了训练监控 ,对磷酸原训练、有氧训练、高原训练模式等进行了探讨 ,为科学训练提供参考依据     

Underwater and surface strategies of 200 m world level swimmers

Pacing strategies of elite swimmers have been consistently characterised from the average lap velocities. In the present study, we examined the racing strategies of 200 m world class-level swimmers with regard to their underwater and surface lap components. The finals and semi-finals of the 200 m races at the 2013 World Swimming Championships (Barcelona, Spain) were analysed by an innovative image-processing system (InThePool® 2.0). Free swimming velocities of elite swimmers typically decreased throughout the 200 m race laps (?0.12 m · s^–1, 95% CI ?0.11 to ?0.14 m · s^–1, P = 0.001, η² = 0.81), whereas underwater velocities, which were faster than free swimming, were not meaningfully affected by the race progress (0.02 m · s^–1, ?0.01 to 0.04 m · s^–1, P = 0.01, η² = 0.04). When swimming underwater, elite swimmers typically travelled less distance (?0.66 m, ?0.83 to ?0.49 m, P = 0.001, η² = 0.34) from the first to the third turn of the race, although underwater distances were maintained on the backstroke and butterfly races. These strategies allowed swimmers to maintain their average velocity in the last lap despite a decrease in the free swimming velocity. Elite coaches and swimmers are advised to model their racing strategies by considering both underwater and surface race components.     

论提升优秀游泳运动员运动寿命的策略

随着体育全球化的推进,各种体育赛事层出不穷。游泳是奥运会的重要比赛项目,奖牌多,影响力大。新形势下,世界泳坛百花争艳,各国选手都极具竞争力,而我国游冰运动员的运动寿命短暂,平均年龄低于国外选手,忽视了许多大器晚成的优秀运动员。因此,本文通过介绍“运动寿命”的定义,分析我国优秀游泳运动员的培养现状,讨论造成优秀游泳运动员运动寿命短暂的因素,寻找延长优秀游泳运动员运动寿命的策略。