Transnational vocational guidance in the European Community

In the Single European Market, which will come into effect at the end of 1992 transnational vocational guidance will play an important role as one of the measures to enhance mobility within and between the twelve member states of the European Community (EC). The mobility of goods, services, capital, and people are essential to obtaining economic growth, which, in turn, is one of the most important political goals of the Single European Market.Of the four types of mobility, vocational guidance deals with people. Transnational vocational guidance supports individuals in their attempt to become more mobile across country borders. In order to map the existing transnational guidance provisions in the EC, a study on eight border regions was made in 1990 (Plant, 1990a). The idea was that this small-scale picture would point to some of challenges for guidance in the large-scale Single Market.From 1992 guidance services in the EC will have to adapt not only to rapid changes in national labour market conditions, but also to the demands of information on education, training, employment opportunities, study grants etc. in other member states. In these terms, psychological counselling dealing with possible personal problems in relation to transnational mobility is not at the heart of the matter.     

Professional and Theoretical Perspectives in Teacher Training: a school‐based study

The article describes an action study undertaken jointly by the Chelsea College Centre for Science and Mathematics Education (University of London), the Universite des Sciences et des Techniques, Montpellier, and the Padagogische Hochschule, Neuss, which investigated the potential for a school‐based approach to teacher training. The study in the three institutions was supported by the Joint Studies Programme (JSP) of the Commission of the European Community for institutions of Higher Education in member States.     

调和中的强制——论欧共体法中的一致解释原则

作为一个有别于普遍国际法的法律秩序,欧共体法建立了不同于普遍国际法的许多规则,一致解释原则当属其中之一。欧洲法院建立和发展一致解释规则旨在保证欧共体法的效力,在确立欧共体法优先地位的基础上,保持了该规则调和的性质,同时试图通过温和而间接的方式使欧共体法在成员国法律制度内取得类似直接效力原则所获得的效力,其内在的强制性随之凸显。与具有直接效力的欧共体法相比,它更易于被各成员国接受,因此与直接效力原则、国家赔偿原则一起成为欧共体法效力的保证。而新近通过Pupino案将该规则扩展适用至欧盟法的第三支柱①,对于欧盟法的发展意味深远。     

THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY COURSE CREDIT TRANSFER SYSTEM∗

ECTS, the European Community Course Credit Transfer System established under the ERASMUS Programme, is currently being tested in a pilot scheme involving 145 higher education institutions in all the European Union member states and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries. It is operating in five subject areas: Business Administration, Chemistry, History, Mechanical Engineering, and Medicine. The pilot project will run through 1994/1995.

     

Early Years in Europe: the development of European Union policy

The last 15 years has seen a new player on the field of early years policy ‐‐ the European Union. Originating in the Treaty of Rome in 1956, which founded the six country European Economic Community, the EU now consists of 15 member states and has its own institutions, including the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Court of Justice and the Council of Ministers. While economic objectives have always been at the heart of this enterprise, the EU also has a social dimension with social goals, set out in broad terms in the Maastricht Treaty on European Union:

The Community shall have as its task.. to promote throughout the Community a harmonious and balanced development of economic activities, sustainable and non‐inflationary growth respecting the environment, a high degree of convergence of economic performance, a high level of employment and of social protection, the raising of the standard of living and quality of life, and economic and social cohesion and solidarity among Member States (my emphasis) (Article 2)

In this paper I shall review the development of early years policy as part of this European social agenda, and consider some of the issues raised for policy making by this new and unique involvement of an international political entity.     

The Recognition of Diplomas in the European Community

By the resolution of February 9, 1976, the Council of Ministers of the European Community requested that a report be prepared with a view toward increasing the possibilities of academic recognition of diplomas and periods of study by the member states. Under the responsibility of M. G. Brunner, in charge of the educational system in the commission of the Communities, this report was edited by a British expert and published at the end of last year. While right of domicile and free circulation of workers among the countries of the Common Market constitutes one of the fundamental principles of the Treaty of Rome, the parliament itself does not deal specifically with the question of free circulation of students. The present mobility of students within the community is very weak. It involves only 0.5% of the total student population. Hence the concern of the commission to promote everything that might be conducive to improving this mobility. The recognition of academic qualifications is one of the essential conditions for the circulation of students from one university to another. It has been made possible by agreements among the member states, and the efforts of the commission will in the years to come be directed toward finding an overall solution for the Community at large on the basis of these agreements, the scope of which has remained limited.     

Future EU-UK research and higher education cooperation at risk: what is at stake?

The UK higher education sector has entered a period of turbulence, as the consequences of the UK leaving the European Union (EU) hit home. Higher education institutions are bracing themselves for what will no doubt be a period of substantial change, uncertainty and challenge. The complexity of the intricate relationships linking EU member states, as well as the EU institutions and their member states, appears to have been misunderstood and understated in the UK, by both the political class and the general public, at the time of the June 2016 referendum. If information is indeed power, its current unavailability is a concern, given that the UK government’s plans to remain firmly embedded within the European Research Area and the Erasmus+ programme remain non-committal. In what can be described as a game of high politics between the EU and the UK government, the fate of research and higher education collaboration will be sealed by high-level inter-governmental agreements decided behind closed doors.

     

Converge or not converge: the European Union and higher education policies in the Netherlands,Belgium/Flanders and Germany

This article examines the impact of European integration on higher education policies of the Netherlands, Belgium/Flanders and Germany. The analysis of higher education policies in the three countries is part of a broader project, which focuses on a majority of E.U. member states. The selection of the three countries for this paper is not based on any methodological considerations. The question addressed is if higher education policies of member states are converging, diverging or not changing at all, and whether such developments are a consequence of the policies of the European Union (E.U.) or of other factors (e.g., the globalization of the market or of institutions imitating each other). A preliminary assessment leads to the conclusion that a number of important indications of convergence are present in national policy arrangements in the field of higher education (in particular student mobility and quality assurance, but less in the structure of higher education systems My attention will be focused on the structure of higher education systems, on quality assurance and on student and teacher mobility. These domains appear to cover most relevant issues pertaining to higher education policies in the European Union member states (funding of higher education is sometimes considered as a separate domain, but it can also be regarded as an element of the structure of higher education systems, while it is also related to the issue of quality assurance).). The European Union, however, does not have much legal authority in the policy sector in question. Thus, an explanation for converging national policies may lie elsewhere, in part in the concept of “institutional isomorphism”.     

欧盟国际私法统一化进程的新突破--《阿姆斯特丹条约》相关规定评析

《阿姆斯特丹条约》在一定范围内首次赋予了欧共体采取协调或统一各成员国国际私法的措施的权力，这是欧洲国际私法统一化进程中从未实现的一个重大突破。基于欧盟基础条约解释上的实践经验，考虑到国际私法领域在欧盟法律统一化整体进程中的滞后状态，应以积极、开放的态度理解这些新增的规定。     

Covert action? Education,social policy and law in the European Union

Education in Europe has been one more aspect of social policy, traditionally held to exist within the sovereignty of member states, which has been encroached upon by supranational institutions. This paper explores the legitimacy of the partial control over education matters that has been gained by the European Union since the 1970s, examining in particular the role of the European Court of Justice and also the European Commission, in reshaping and altering definitions of legal competence in the fields of education and training. Special emphasis is placed on the method by which an original competence in training has been reconstituted to incorporate some aspects of education policy. Implications for democratic legitimacy and accountability at the European level are discussed.     

Developing a European Dimension of the Teacher Training Curriculum

This contribution explores the relationship between traditional conceptions of pedagogy and an alternative approach grounded in research‐based teaching. The case is put forward for collaborative investigations focusing on improving practice on the European dimension in education. The implications of this case suggests a changed role for training institutions to enable the study of inter‐cultural teaching and learning to be carried out by practitioners. For the teacher, supported opportunities to contribute to a knowledge base of good practice through action inquiry is also implied. The experience of an EEC‐funded project designed with such principles in mind is described and evaluated. Operating since 1982 in six member states, the outcomes suggest some priorities for future activities and outline a theory for developing the European dimension of the teacher training curriculum.     

Status and Developments of eLearning in the EU10 Member States: the cases of Estonia,Hungary and Slovenia

This article summarises research carried out between 2006 and 2008 by IPTS (Institution for Prospective Technological Studies) in collaboration with a consortium of experts from 10 member states, led by ICEGEC. The project gathered information on eLearning developments to assess drivers and barriers and to suggest implications for policy and research in the 10 member states that joined the European Union in 2004. Three examples of countries (Estonia, Hungary and Slovenia) demonstrate that, while the group is not homogeneous, commonalities can be detected. Reports show that all the EU10 countries have been catching up with the older member states in ICT penetration and skills, but large digital divides remain due to regional, social and economic divides. Educational institutions are equipped with ICT, but not always at the same level in classrooms as in EU15. Universities are using ICT in education, but mostly for material provision purposes. Enterprises seem to have higher usage of eLearning solutions than in EU15, but these are not equally available for all employees. Lack of focus and coordination in policies to support eLearning developments has been assessed to be a major barrier. In general, EU10 seems to be facing similar challenges to other European countries, although specific efforts are needed to help close the divides and engage people in lifelong learning with the new opportunities ICT could provide.     

Evolution of Higher Education Finance in Australia

Central policymakers are becoming more aware of the possibilities of implementing their policies by using 'softer' discretionary financial instruments in preference to 'harder' directives and conditions attached to granted funds. A typical technique within this softer approach is to offer block grants to any target organization which contracts to pursue specific policy goals and to account for their achievement. Policymakers effectively perceive themselves as 'quasi-consumers', prepared to 'buy' the achievements of their target organizations. Following its new self-perception, the Commonwealth has 'invited' higher education institutions to 'enjoy' the financial benefits of its new Unified National System. Membership is open, however, only to those institutions which undertake to achieve specific organizational reforms desired by the Commonwealth. Moreover block recurrent grants flow to member institutions only after teaching and research targets have been individually negotiated and contracted. An endnote updates the final section on the Relative Funding Model.     

The application of a strategic management model to the internationalization of higher education institutions

The growth of international activities within higher education institutions takes place in a number of different ways ranging from the ad hoc (reactive) to the strategic (proactive). This paper draws on an earlier (1993) empirical study by the author of UK Business Schools in order to identify the key elements within any process of internationalization and to provide a framework for assessing levels of international activity within institutions. It concludes with an introductory model of internationalization which is to form the basis for future work. The paper is written from a UK perspective but can be adapted for the analysis of educational institutions in other countries and other subject areas.Abbreviations CATS Credit Accumulation and Transfer Schemes - CNAA Council for National Academic Awards - EAIE European Association of International Education - EC European Commission - ECTS European Credit Transfer Scheme - EFMD European Foundation for Management Development - ERASMUS European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students (EC programme) - HE Higher Education - MBA Master of Business Administration - TEMPUS Trans-European Mobility Scheme for University Studies (EC programme) - UK United Kingdom - UKCOSA United Kingdom Council for Overseas Student Affairs     

Opportunities to learn about Europe at school. A comparative analysis among European adolescents in 21 European member states

In this article, we investigate the relationship between different learning methods and the formation of European identity among adolescents. The analysis is based on the European module of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (2009), with 70,502 respondents in 21 European member states. The results show that offering opportunities for cognitive learning is more strongly related to European identity than social learning opportunities, i.e. opportunities for interactions with citizens from other European Union member states. The occurrence of an interaction effect between cognitive and social learning strategies, however, suggests that jointly offering both learning strategies can be considered the most effective tool for the formation of a European identity. The multilevel analysis reveals the impact of a more Eurosceptic climate on the country level, suggesting that living in a Eurosceptic member state is related to a weaker European identity among adolescents. We close with some observations on how curricula can contribute to a strengthening of European identity.     

State authorization reciprocity agreement: participation and access to higher education

The State Authorization Reciprocity Agreement initiative was launched in 2014 to provide a uniform standard for the regulation of distance education across states in the United States. The system established by the National Council for State Authorization Reciprocity Agreement (NC-SARA) allows willing post-secondary institutions to participate voluntarily through a member state where their home campus is located. Since implementation, several states and institutions in the approved states have joined the interstate agreement. About 36 states and 613 institutions in the United States are participating in the interstate agreement as of January 2016. This study analyzed the pattern of participation among various institution types (public, private for-profit and private not-for-profit) and finds that participation amongst states and institutions has continued to increase since implementation of the interstate agreement. With the flexibility that distance learning offers, increased participation in SARA may translate into greater opportunities for participation in higher education.     

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY COURSE CREDIT TRANSFER SYSTEM

ECTS, the European Community Course Credit Transfer System, has been conceived to ease academic mobility and recognition, through the creation of a common credit system for the courses of the participating institutions from different countries.     

MULTINATIONAL INTEGRATION AND NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS: THE CASE OF AUSTRIA

This article examines the question of European integration from the vantage point of national education systems. Taking Austria and its education system as examples, it argues that even if Austria should join the European Community, it does not follow that its education system should be merged into a common education system. Just as the European Community is not the same thing as a united Europe, education systems are so closely linked to their individual countries that they should not be turned into supranational organizations, even if other national institutions lend themselves to this kind of integration.     

英国在欧洲联合初期对国家主权原则的坚持

在欧洲联合进程中,英国坚持主权国家合作的原则,不赞成"超国家"的一体化。战后初期,英国参加了政府间合作性质的欧洲经济合作组织和欧洲委员会,但没有参加具有超国家性质,需要让渡部分主权的欧洲煤钢共同体,也不肯参加超国家性质的欧洲防务共同体计划。这使英国未搭上欧洲一体化的头班车,也不利于英国在欧洲的影响力。     

论欧盟律师服务贸易自由化

贸易自由化是欧盟经济与货币同盟的重要内容。在欧盟服务贸易自由化机制的推动下,律师服务同欧盟其它众多的服务行业一样,在自由化方面取得了重大成果。《律师服务指令》、《凭指令》和《永久执业指令》,以及一系列欧共体法院判例,基本上扫除了成员国律师在其他成员国境内临时性或永久性自由提供服务的障碍。欧盟的这一成果,预示着法律服务贸易自由化在WTO等国际经济组织的推动下,在全球范围内发展的趋势。