Comparison of the reliability and validity of scores from two concept‐mapping techniques*

This paper reports the results of a study that compared two concept‐mapping techniques, one high‐directed, “fill‐in‐the‐map,” and one low‐directed, “construct‐a‐map‐from‐scratch.” We examined whether: (1) skeleton map scores were sensitive to the sample of nodes or linking lines to be filled in; (2) the two types of skeleton maps were equivalent; and (3) the two mapping techniques provided similar information about students' connected understanding. Results indicated that fill‐in‐the‐map scores were not sensitive to the sample of concepts or linking lines to be filled in. Nevertheless, the fill‐in‐the‐nodes and fill‐in‐the‐lines techniques were not equivalent forms of fill‐in‐the‐map. Finally, high‐directed and low‐directed maps led to different interpretations about students' knowledge structure. Whereas scores obtained under the high‐directed technique indicated that students' performance was close to the maximum possible, the scores obtained with the low‐directed technique revealed that students' knowledge was incomplete compared to a criterion map. We concluded that the construct‐a‐map technique better reflected differences among students' knowledge structure. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 38: 260–278, 2001     

Perceptual Learning: 12‐Month‐Olds’ Discrimination of Monkey Faces

Six‐month‐olds reliably discriminate different monkey and human faces whereas 9‐month‐olds only discriminate different human faces. It is often falsely assumed that perceptual narrowing reflects a permanent change in perceptual abilities. In 3 experiments, ninety‐six 12‐month‐olds’ discrimination of unfamiliar monkey faces was examined. Following 20 s of familiarization, and two 5‐s visual‐paired comparison test trials, 12‐month‐olds failed to show discrimination. However, following 40 s of familiarization and two 10‐s test trials, 12‐month‐olds showed reliable discrimination of novel monkey faces. A final experiment was performed demonstrating 12‐month‐olds’ discrimination of the monkey face was due to the increased familiarization rather than increased time of visual comparison. Results are discussed in the context of perceptual narrowing, in particular the flexible nature of perceptual narrowing.     

The Difference Differentiation Makes: Extending Eisner's Account

In this analysis Jane Blanken‐Webb extends Elliot Eisner's account of how learning in the arts contributes to the creation of mind. Drawing on the psychoanalytic theory of D. W. Winnicott, Blanken‐Webb argues that the acts of meaning making to which Eisner attends rely on a prior developmental achievement — namely, the establishment of self‐in‐relation‐to‐world. This prior development is important to recognize in order to appreciate all that is at stake and at play within acts of meaning making. To demonstrate this, Blanken‐Webb points to reverberations of an earlier process of psychological differentiation embedded within such acts that are crucial for aesthetic experience and that carry on a continual process of refinement of self‐in‐relation‐to‐world. While Eisner has a great deal to offer regarding the importance of providing students access to multiple forms of representation, this perspective adds that in doing so we are expanding on a foundation of self‐in‐relation‐to‐world, thus facilitating an educational unfolding that is much deeper than we typically recognize.     

A relational uncertainty analysis of jealousy,trust, and maintenance in long‐distance versus geographically close relationships

This study uses an uncertainty framework to uncover the patterns of relationships between uncertainty, jealousy, maintenance, and trust in two types of long‐distance relationships (LDRs; both those without face‐to‐face contact and those with some face‐to‐face contact) and geographically close relationships (GCRs). Data were collected from 311 individuals. Results supported the hypothesized relationships, with relational uncertainty positively related to cognitive and emotional jealousy, negatively related to five maintenance behaviors, and negatively related to trust. Counter to predictions, individuals in GCRs did not experience less relational uncertainty than individuals in LDRs with some face‐to‐face contact, but those in LDRs with some face‐to‐face contact were significantly more certain of their relationships than were those in LDRs without face‐to‐face contact. Finally, individuals in long‐distance relationships with no face‐to‐face interaction were significantly less likely to use the maintenance behaviors of assurances or sharing tasks, and expressed significantly less trust than individuals in long‐distance relationships with some face‐to‐face interaction.     

An Investigation of Text‐based Instructional Materials Enhanced with Graphics

ABSTRACT An adaptation of Bagley's (1990) experiment which compared the interaction of instructional format with adult learners was carried out replacing the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) arithmetic reasoning subtest with the Riding & Cheema (1991) Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA). There was an additional inclusion of graphics to the structured instructional format, as an independent variable. A total of 45 participants attended workshops to learn how to write PASCAL programs. All of the participants completed the CSA and their CSA‐ratio was used to select pairs of similar CSA‐ratios. One participant from each pair was given a text‐only instructional booklet, while the other was given a text‐plus‐graphics instructional booklet. The treatment groups were controlled for instructional format (text‐only/text‐plus‐graphics) and cognitive style. The independent variables were used to test for their effect on learning abstract computer programming concepts. It was found that the Verbal‐Imagery cognitive style and instructional treatment interacted in their effect on the performance‐difference scores. The Novice‐Verbal programmers performed best with a text‐plus‐graphics instructional format, performing significantly better than the Novice‐Imagers’ subgroups using the same text‐plus‐graphics material. Conversely, the Novice‐Imagers participants performed better with the material. However, the Experienced‐Imagery participants performed better with the text‐plus‐graphics instructional material than the Experienced‐Verbalisers. Overall, the Verbalisers’ worst performance occurred with the text‐only materials, while their best performance occurred with the text‐plus‐graphics material. This pilot experiment suggests that learning performance is affected by an interaction of cognitive style and instructional format. However, this interaction was contrary to expectations (Riding & Douglas, 1993), with Verbalisers performing best with text‐plus‐graphics instructional material and Novice‐Imagers performing best with text‐only instructional material.     

Self‐stigma and domains of well‐being in high school youth: Associations with self‐efficacy,self‐esteem,and self‐criticism

Self‐stigma is a phenomenon in which negative public stereotypes about mental illness are internalized and can undermine help‐seeking. Unfortunately, little is known about how self‐stigmatization relates to positive well‐being indicators among youth. A sample of 134 high school students completed established measures of self‐stigma, well‐being, self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and self‐criticism. Analyses confirmed that self‐stigma was associated with overall well‐being and five well‐being subscales (autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations, and self‐acceptance); the strongest associations were with autonomy and positive relations with others. The majority of these associations still held when simultaneously controlling for self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and self‐criticism. Taken together, findings point to the need for greater awareness of self‐stigma along with an explicit focus on the promotion of protective well‐being in prevention work and interventions designed to alleviate the tendency for young people to internalize stigma. Additionally, findings have theoretical implications for the “why try” model of self‐stigma.     

Development of Scientific Thinking Facilitated by Reflective Self‐Assessment in a Communication‐Intensive Food Science and Human Nutrition Course

A one‐credit seminar on controversies in food science and human nutrition was a platform to introduce students to learning frameworks for thinking‐like‐a‐scientist. We hypothesized that explicitly engaging students in thinking about their thinking abilities within these frameworks would enhance their self‐perception of scientific thinking, an important general ability for food scientists. Our objectives were to assess thinking‐like‐a‐scientist using a student self‐assessment survey, and analyze their self‐reflections for evidence of such thinking. For students enrolled in one of the offerings of this course among 5 semesters from 2012 to 2014, differences in scores on a survey instrument for thinking‐like‐a‐scientist from the beginning to the end of the course showed gains in self‐assessed abilities (N = 21 to 22 students/semester). In each of the first 2 semesters in which we introduced thinking‐like‐a‐scientist frameworks, students thought they were better at defining problems scientifically by 13% to 14%. In the 3rd course offering, students’ self‐assessment of their abilities to seek evidence improved by 10%. In the 4th and 5th semester course offerings, students’ self‐assessed abilities to develop plans based on evidence improved by 7% to 14%. At the end of each semester, students’ self‐reflections on scientific thinking (N = 20 to 24/semester) included specific reference to asking questions (45% to 65% of reflections) and making plans based on evidence (26% to 50% of reflections). These data support the usefulness of self‐reflection tools as well as specific learning frameworks to help students to think about and practice thinking‐like‐a‐scientist.     

Delinquency and reputational orientations of adolescent at‐risk and not‐at‐risk males and females

This research investigated differences in delinquent activities and the reputational orientations of at‐risk and not‐at‐risk male and female adolescents. Initially, we sought to establish that adolescent males and females differed in these respects. This was found to be the case: males (n = 722) scored significantly higher than females (n = 738) on seven self‐reported delinquency variables and on eight reputation enhancement variables pertaining to social deviance, non‐conforming reputation, and power/evaluation private identity. When a sample of 31 at‐risk females was subsequently pair‐wise age matched with 31 not‐at‐risk females, at‐risk females scored significantly higher on all delinquency variables other than school misdemeanors. These at‐risk females also scored significantly higher on four reputation enhancement variables relating to social deviance and non‐conformity. Given that at‐risk females did not differ from their not‐at‐risk counterparts in level of involvement in school misdemeanors, we sought to determine whether this was also the case for at‐risk and not‐at‐risk males. An age‐matched sample of 91 pairs revealed that at‐risk males reported significantly higher involvement than not‐at‐risk males in all aspects of delinquency, including school misdemeanors. They also sought a more non‐conforming reputation. To explore the relationships between delinquency and reputation enhancement, a canonical correlation analysis was performed. All findings are discussed in the light of reputation enhancement theory.     

College students' intentions to use e‐portfolios: From the perspectives of career‐commitment status and weblog‐publication behaviours

The growing popularity of a school‐wide e‐portfolio system in colleges and universities has raised concerns regarding whether students will use it or consider it important to have an e‐portfolio system, especially when its use is not required by their curriculum. This study investigated college students' intentions to use and the students' attitudes towards using an e‐portfolio system, and did so from the perspectives of career‐commitment status and weblog‐publication behaviours. The results indicate that career‐commitment status substantially influences college students' intentions and attitudes relative to using an e‐portfolio system. Also, overlap in the functions of weblogs and e‐portfolios (which allow people to use them interchangeably) does not directly result in higher or lower levels of intention to use an e‐portfolio system. A composite system providing career services, goal‐oriented self‐presentation and personality‐driven self‐expression is recommended.     

Effects of self‐monitoring,token reinforcement and different back‐up reinforcers on the classroom behaviour of retardates

Following a baseline observation period, a class of intellectually handicapped boys were given opportunities to monitor and record their own behaviour as on‐task or off‐task. Following this self‐monitoring phase, the self‐administered check‐marks were used as tokens and exchanged for back‐up consequences, which were initially low‐value objects for consumption (possession). These were later increased in value, and finally changed to access consequences (the opportunity to play with but not possess). Self‐monitoring alone produced a significant increment in the externally assessed level of on‐task behaviour. Only when access back‐up consequences were introduced was there a further significant increment. Provision of high‐value consumption consequences was followed by a loss of accuracy in self‐monitoring, and reduction in on‐task behaviour to baseline levels. The study demonstrated the extension of a self‐control procedure to retardates, the importance of separately measuring the effect of self‐monitoring on the target behaviour, and the need for appropriate selection of back‐up consequences.     

Developmental Changes in Executive Functioning

Although early studies of executive functioning in children supported Miyake et al.'s (2000) three‐factor model, more recent findings supported a variety of undifferentiated or two‐factor structures. Using a cohort‐sequential design, this study examined whether there were age‐related differences in the structure of executive functioning among 6‐ to 15‐year‐olds (N = 688). Children were tested annually on tasks designed to measure updating and working memory, inhibition, and switch efficiency. There was substantial task‐based variation in developmental patterns on the various tasks. Confirmatory factor analyses and tests for longitudinal factorial invariance showed that data from the 5‐ to 13‐year‐olds conformed to a two‐factor structure. For the 15‐year‐olds, a well‐separated three‐factor structure was found.     

ISD model building: From tabula rasa to apple peel

An evidence‐based practice (EBP) model is proposed to replace the more‐art‐than‐science “rope bridge” currently spanning the defining space of a training need and the designing space of a training curriculum. The rope bridge analogy symbolizes a way to address perceived deficiencies and research gaps in the analysis‐design‐development‐implementation‐evaluation (ADDIE) model. Not to be construed as mere window dressing, a developmental model of EBP‐adherent instructional design is offered as a prototype for changing ADDIE's internal landscape and making instructional design more effective.     

EFFECTS OF TEACHER–STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS ON PEER HARASSMENT: A MULTILEVEL STUDY

Peer harassment is a major social problem affecting children and adolescents internationally. Much research has focused on student‐to‐student harassment from either an individual or a multilevel perspective. There is a paucity of multilevel research on students’ relationships with the classroom teacher. The purpose of this study was to use a socioecological perspective to examine the relationships between individual student‐level characteristics, problematic teacher–student relationships, and student‐reported peer harassment. A total of 1,864 children (50.7% female) aged 8 to 13 years (M = 9.82, SD = 1.24), nested in 27 schools (58.2% public) in Spain, participated in the study. Ninety‐four homeroom teachers reported on teacher–student relationships, and students completed self‐report measures related to peer harassment and teacher–student relationships. Multilevel models showed that relationships between students and teachers exerted a varying degree of influence on classroom levels of peer harassment. Specifically, student‐reported teacher support was associated with diminished student‐reported peer victimization, whereas direct and indirect student‐reported teacher‐to‐student aggression was associated with increased peer victimization. Additionally, student‐reported student‐to‐teacher aggression and teacher‐to‐student aggression were associated with increased student‐reported peer aggression. Teacher‐reported variables at the classroom level, however, contributed little to student‐reported outcomes. Results are discussed in the context of future research on relationships between teachers and students.     

The Effects of Peer‐Assisted Literacy Strategies for First‐Grade Readers With and Without Additional Mini‐Skills Lessons

In this research, we sought to replicate findings of our previous research examining the efficacy of 1st‐Grade Peer‐Assisted Literacy Strategies (1st‐Grade PALS) with children of different achievement levels in naturally constituted general education classrooms. We also examined the impact of adding skills‐focused mini‐lessons conducted along with 1st‐Grade PALS with the 3 lowest‐achieving readers in some of these classrooms. First‐Grade PALS sessions were conducted for 30‐minutes session 3 times a week for 14 weeks. Mini‐lessons were also conducted 3 times per week for 15 to 20 minute sessions during the final 6 weeks of 1st‐Grade PALS implementation. During 1st‐Grade PALS, all students within a class were paired with other students from within the same class (1) to practice phonological awareness, phonological recoding, and reading of connected text built on previously mastered phonological elements, and (2) to make predictions about a book prior to reading it, share the experience of reading a story with a peer, have repeated exposure to text, and summarize the story through verbal retelling. The skills‐focused mini‐lessons mirrored the content of 1st‐Grade PALS and were designed to provide additional instruction and integrated practice of the orthophonemic elements of English text. Results indicate that 1st‐Grade PALS, on average, enhanced reading performance of students both in terms of statistical significance and in terms of educational relevance, although not equally for all learner types, closely replicating findings from our previous studies. Results also suggest that there was some benefit to students who participated in the small‐group mini‐lessons. However, conclusions about the true impact of the mini‐lessons are limited because teachers resisted implementing these lessons.     

The Need for E‐Learning Strategies: Higher Education Institutions and Their Responses to a Changing Environment

Integrating e‐Learning in their educational delivery and support processes is one way of strategy formation higher education institutions can deploy to respond to their changing environment. In this article, the focus of such a strategy formation is on three strategic choices: traditional, face‐to‐face, campus‐based education (back‐to‐basics), flexible on‐campus delivery of education (stretching‐the‐mould) or anytime, anywhere education (worldcampus). Results of a quantitative study showed that higher education institutions with a worldcampus strategy differ from higher education institutions with a back‐to‐basics strategy because they have a stronger focus on ‘increasing access,’ ‘offering logistic flexibility,’ and ‘use of ICT for income generation.’ By doing so, these higher education institutions aim to respond to an environment that is becoming increasingly market‐oriented and competitive.     

Waiting for the Second Treat: Developing Culture‐Specific Modes of Self‐Regulation

The development of self‐regulation has been studied primarily in Western middle‐class contexts and has, therefore, neglected what is known about culturally varying self‐concepts and socialization strategies. The research reported here compared the self‐regulatory competencies of German middle‐class (N = 125) and rural Cameroonian Nso preschoolers (N = 76) using the Marshmallow test (Mischel, 2014). Study 1 revealed that 4‐year‐old Nso children showed better delay‐of‐gratification performance than their German peers. Study 2 revealed that culture‐specific maternal socialization goals and interaction behaviors were related to delay‐of‐gratification performance. Nso mothers’ focus on hierarchical relational socialization goals and responsive control seems to support children's delay‐of‐gratification performance more than German middle‐class mothers’ emphasis on psychological autonomous socialization goals and sensitive, child‐centered parenting.     

E‐mentoring for social equity: review of research to inform program development

The advent of user‐friendly email programs and web browsers created possibilities for widespread use of e‐mentoring programs. In this review of the research, we presented the history of e‐mentoring programs and defined e‐mentoring and structured e‐mentoring programs, focusing on large‐scale e‐mentoring programs that addressed issues of social equity and educational advancement. The literature reviewed spanned from the mid‐1990s to the present and included journal articles, reports, and book chapters on implemented e‐mentoring programs. The literature indicates that e‐mentoring is not a panacea, neither is it an inexpensive alternative to face‐to‐face mentoring. E‐mentoring is an alternative mode that facilitates the expansion of mentoring opportunities. The research we reviewed supported that the benefits associated with e‐mentoring mirrored the benefits associated with mentoring: informational, psychosocial, and instrumental. In addition, research supports two additional benefits of e‐mentoring: the value of impartiality and inter‐organizational connections, which were facilitated by the use of electronic communications. Research conducted on the programmatic features associated with e‐mentoring programs identified training, coaching, and group e‐mentoring as features that enhanced participant involvement. Our goal in providing a review of the research at this stage in the development of e‐mentoring was to facilitate increased understanding of the current research to enhance future research and programs and to advance e‐mentoring as a field.     

Does STES‐Oriented Science Education Promote 10th‐Grade Students’ Decision‐Making Capability?

Today’s society is continuously coping with sustainability‐related complex issues in the Science‐Technology‐Environment‐Society (STES) interfaces. In those contexts, the need and relevance of the development of students’ higher‐order cognitive skills (HOCS) such as question‐asking, critical‐thinking, problem‐solving and decision‐making capabilities within science teaching have been argued by several science educators for decades. Three main objectives guided this study: (1) to establish “base lines” for HOCS capabilities of 10th grade students (n = 264) in the Israeli educational system; (2) to delineate within this population, two different groups with respect to their decision‐making capability, science‐oriented (n = 142) and non‐science (n = 122) students, Groups A and B, respectively; and (3) to assess the pre‐post development/change of students’ decision‐making capabilities via STES‐oriented HOCS‐promoting curricular modules entitled Science, Technology and Environment in Modern Society (STEMS). A specially developed and validated decision‐making questionnaire was used for obtaining a research‐based response to the guiding research questions. Our findings suggest that a long‐term persistent application of purposed decision‐making, promoting teaching strategies, is needed in order to succeed in affecting, positively, high‐school students’ decision‐making ability. The need for science teachers’ involvement in the development of their students’ HOCS capabilities is thus apparent.     

Young Children's Ability to Adapt their Drawings of the Human Figure

5‐year‐olds, 7‐year‐olds and 9‐year‐olds were asked to draw three figures, one standing still and facing them, one standing still in profile and one running in profile. Half drew from imagination and half drew from models. The 5‐year‐olds made fewest distinctions in the way they drew the figures, the most notable being the greater spread of the legs of the running figure. With increasing age, more features were used to differentiate the three figures. There was little evidence of 5‐year‐olds adapting their figures in the presence of a model. Only among the older children was there a significant effect of the presence of a model when the 7‐year‐olds and, to a greater extent, the 9‐year‐olds drew their running figure with bent arms and legs and also with more transparencies and partial occlusions.