Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches

The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9–12 years (M?=?9.74, SD?=?0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n?=?13), Errorless Low-Ability (n?=?11), Errorful High-Ability (n?=?10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n?=?11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities.     

Hemispheric Teaching Strategies in the Acquisition and Retention of a Motor Skill

An extreme preference in processing information within either the left or right hemisphere is known as hemisphericity. A previous study investigating hemisphericity as a factor in motor skill learning (Murray, 1979) found that matching subjects' hemisphericity characteristics with hemispherical teaching strategies enhanced skill acquisition. In contrast, our study examined the effects of hemispherical teaching strategies on a group of subjects who did not present hemisphericity. Right-handed male high school students were randomly assigned to either a left hemisphere, right hemisphere, or an interhemispherical teaching condition. Subjects in the right hemisphere and interhemispherical conditions performed and learned the skill more effectively than subjects in the left hemisphere teaching condition. The right hemisphere and interhemispherical groups performed comparably in acquisition; however, the interhemispherical group showed significantly better retention of the skill. Motor skill acquisition and retention for nondominant processors appears best served by directing both verbal and nonverbal attention to the skill.     

Movement Pattern and Parameter Learning in Children

Reduced feedback during practice has been shown to be detrimental to movement accuracy in children but not in young adults. We hypothesized that the reduced accuracy is attributable to reduced movement parameter learning, but not pattern learning, in children. A rapid arm movement task that required the acquisition of a motor pattern scaled to specific spatial and temporal parameters was used to investigate the effects of feedback (FB) frequency (100% vs. 62% faded) on motor learning differences between 19 school-age children and 19 young adults. Adults and children practiced the task for 200 trials under the 100% or faded FB condition on Day 1 and returned on Day 2 for a no-FB retention test. On the retention test, children who practiced with reduced feedback performed with greater temporal parameter errors, but not pattern error, than children who received frequent feedback. Motor skill learning in children is influenced by feedback frequency during practice that affects parameter learning but not pattern learning.     

Task complexity and sources of task-related information during the observational learning process

Abstract

Although research has examined the influence of various sources of task information for skill acquisition during observational learning, the results have been ambiguous. The purpose of this study was to examine sources of information in relation to the type of task. One hundred and twenty participants were randomly assigned to one of two sets of six treatment strategies: (1) all model demonstrations; (2) model demonstrations with physical practice with knowledge of performance; (3) model demonstrations with physical practice without knowledge of performance; (4) physical practice without knowledge of performance; (5) physical practice with knowledge of performance; or (6) verbal instructions only. One set learned a simple version of the task while the other set learned a more complex version. Cognitive representation and performance accuracy (spatial and temporal) were assessed. Results indicate that task type does influence the source of information to facilitate skill acquisition. The simple task benefited from model demonstrations, physical practice with knowledge of performance, or a combination of model demonstrations and practice both with and without knowledge of performance, while the complex version benefited more from a combination of model demonstrations and knowledge of performance practice. The results of this study provide an insight into the ambiguity that exists within the observational learning and motor learning literature regarding the effectiveness of information sources for motor skill acquisition.     

不同相对频率的视觉表现反馈对运动技能学习效果影响的实验研究

运动技能控制与学习领域中追加反馈的研究始终是国内外学者研究的重要课题,而追加反馈中的表现反馈更是学者们研究的焦点问题。运用文献资料法、实验法和数理统计法等,架构于乒乓球正手发下旋球这项运动技能,对参与该项运动技能的学习者施加100%相对频率的视觉方式表现反馈和33%相对频率的视觉方式表现反馈。结果表明:①在运动技能学习阶段采用视觉方式表现反馈指导运动技能,高频率视觉反馈组的绩效好于低频率视觉反馈组;②在运动技能3min保留阶段采用视觉方式表现反馈指导运动技能,视觉高频率反馈组的绩效好于视觉低频率反馈组;③在运动技能48h保留阶段采用视觉方式表现反馈指导运动技能,视觉高频率反馈组的绩效与视觉低频率反馈组的绩效无显著性差异。     

任务性质对反馈频率适宜值的影响

采用两维电脑追踪任务,探讨任务性质对反馈频率适宜值的影响。将大学生随机分为开放性任务和封闭性任务组,两组受试者分别在不同的反馈频率条件下,连续两天练习开放性或封闭性任务。结果显示:获得阶段,两组受试者的操作绩效随反馈频率增加呈提高趋势;任务性质与反馈频率适宜值存在交互作用;与封闭性任务相比,操作开放性任务时,应适当增加反馈的频率。提示:动作技能学习中,任务性质影响反馈频率适宜值。     

Decision-Making in Elementary School-Age Children: Effects upon Motor Learning and Self-Concept Development

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of variable decision-making teaching models upon the development of body coordination and self-concept of children in grades one through five. Students in two socioeconomically equivalent schools of a large, inner-city school system constituted the sample (N = 285) for this study. Intact classroom groups from the experimental school were randomly assigned to one of two experimental treatments. The control school did not receive any treatment. The experimental treatments consisted of two physical education programs which varied only in the type of teacher behavior exhibited. Cheffers' Adaptation of Flanders' Interaction Analysis System (Cheffers, Mancini, & Marlinek, 1980) was used to verify the two treatments used. The Schilling Body Coordination Test (Schilling & Kephart, 1976) was used to evaluate motor skill development, and the Marlinek-Zaichkowsky Self-Concept Scale (1977) was used to evaluate self-concept development. Results indicated that learners can be given decision-making responsibility within the physical education environment and, at the same time, maintain a level of motor skill achievement equal to that of learners who have not been allowed to make decisions within the learning environment. No conclusions could be drawn concerning the effects of student decision making upon self-concept development. Additional results indicated that the development of body coordination is a function of maturation, and that no relationship exists between self-concept and body coordination.     

The Generalizability Effectiveness of a Learning Strategy on Achievement in Related Closed Motor Skills

Abstract

This study determined the effectiveness of a global learning strategy on the skill level attained in one closed primary task and two related ones. Eighty subjects were randomly assigned to five groups equal in number and sex: a content-dependent strategy group (CDS), a content-dependent strategy plus reminders group (CDSR), a content-independent strategy group (CIS), a content-independent strategy plus reminders group (CISR), or a control group. A content dependent strategy is one learned in reference to a specific task; in this case, the primary one. A content independent strategy is learned in the context of many example tasks. Subjects performed underhanded dart throwing as the primary task, jart throwing (similar in nature to dart throwing) as the directly related task, and soccer foul shooting as the slightly related task. The strategy used to test the hypotheses generated was the Singer 5-Step Strategy. ANOVAs indicated that all of the strategy learning conditions were significantly more effective than the control condition for each task. Furthermore, the CIS learning situation was more beneficial for the learning of the task most related to the primary task than the CDS learning situation. The CISR group outperformed the other strategy groups in the less-related task.     

Increased cognitive load during acquisition of a continuous task eliminates the learning effects of self-controlled knowledge of results

ABSTRACT

Previous research has demonstrated that providing learners with self-control over some aspect of practice enhances motor learning (for a review see Wulf, 2007). One explanation for the self-control effect is that learners engage in deeper information processing when they are allowed to make choices during practice. Recent research has supported this line of thinking by showing that the self-control effect was eliminated for learners who engaged in a cognitive load task during the interval following completion of discrete task trials (Carter & Ste-Marie, 2017). The current study tested the effects of imposing a cognitive load task during the completion of continuous task trials. Participants (N = 48) were divided into self-control (SC), self-control with load (SCL), and two corresponding yoked (YK, YKL) groups. Participants learned a continuous tracing task and then performed 24-hour retention and transfer tests. Retention and transfer test movement times were significantly faster for SC compared to YK participants within the No Load condition but did not differ between these participants within the Load condition. Errors were similar among all groups in retention and transfer. These results provide support for the importance of information processing in regards to the self-controlled learning benefit.     

观察和练习比例、任务复杂程度对运动技能学习的影响

采用实验法,探讨不同的观察学习和身体练习比例及任务复杂程度对追踪任务技能学习的影响.将受试分为简单任务学习组和复杂任务学习组,然后再根据比例将受试随机分为25%观察学习+75%身体练习组、50%观察学习+50%身体练习组及75%观察学习+25%身体练习组,进行为期3 d的计算机追踪任务学习.结果显示:对复杂任务学习而言,50%观察学习+50%身体练习比例的学习效果较好;对于简单任务学习而言,3种观察学习和身体练习比例的学习效果相同.     

Task complexity and sources of task-related information during the observational learning process

Although research has examined the influence of various sources of task information for skill acquisition during observational learning, the results have been ambiguous. The purpose of this study was to examine sources of information in relation to the type of task. One hundred and twenty participants were randomly assigned to one of two sets of six treatment strategies: (1) all model demonstrations; (2) model demonstrations with physical practice with knowledge of performance; (3) model demonstrations with physical practice without knowledge of performance; (4) physical practice without knowledge of performance; (5) physical practice with knowledge of performance; or (6) verbal instructions only. One set learned a simple version of the task while the other set learned a more complex version. Cognitive representation and performance accuracy (spatial and temporal) were assessed. Results indicate that task type does influence the source of information to facilitate skill acquisition. The simple task benefited from model demonstrations, physical practice with knowledge of performance, or a combination of model demonstrations and practice both with and without knowledge of performance, while the complex version benefited more from a combination of model demonstrations and knowledge of performance practice. The results of this study provide an insight into the ambiguity that exists within the observational learning and motor learning literature regarding the effectiveness of information sources for motor skill acquisition.     

任务复杂程度对反馈频率适宜值的影响研究

采用单维简单和两维复杂电脑追踪任务,探讨任务复杂程度对反馈频率适宜值的影响.96名右利手的在校大学生随机分为简单任务和复杂任务组(每组男、女各24名).两组受试者分别在25%相对频率(提供反馈的练习次数占总练习次数的25%,简称反馈频率,下同)、50%反馈频率、75%反馈频率、100%反馈频率条件下,连续两天练习简单或复杂任务,每天练习36次.第2天练习结束后休息10min,2组受试者进行无反馈保持测试.一天后,再进行无反馈的保持测试.结果显示:(1)练习阶段,两组受试者的操作绩效随反馈频率增加呈提高趋势;(2)50%反馈频率利于简单任务的技能学习,75%反馈频率利于复杂任务的技能学习;(3)任务复杂程度与反馈频率适宜值存在交互作用,与简单任务相比,操作复杂任务时,应增加反馈的频率.以上结果提示:当信息加工负荷较小(如操作任务较简单)时,减少反馈频率利于技能学习;而当信息加工负荷较大(操作任务较复杂)时,频繁反馈利于技能学习.     

Cognitive Style and Learner Strategy Interaction in the Performance of Primary and Related Maze Tasks

Abstract

The effect of designated learning strategies and reflective versus impulsive cognitive styles on performance in a maze learning task was investigated. Twenty-four female subjects were randomly assigned to a strategy or control group. The strategies group was provided with three potentially effective strategies (imagery, rhythm, and feedback) as identified by an information processing task analysis procedure. The Matching Familiar Figures test further classified subjects within the two groups according to their preferred styles of responding. Eleven primary task trials were administered with direct view of maze and four related task trials were completed with an indirect view of it. Traversal speed and time in the incorrect pathways were analyzed with a 2 × 2 × 7 (Strategies × Cognitive Styles × Trial Blocks) repeated measures ANOVA. A significant three-way interaction was found for both dependent measures. As hypothesized, during the primary task the control reflective subjects traversed the maze more slowly than the control impulsive subjects. However, the strategies reflective subjects completed the maze with the same speed as strategies impulsives. The incorrect pathways × time interaction revealed that the control reflective subjects spent less time in the incorrect pathways during the related task than the control impulsives. No significant differences were found for strategies reflectives or impulsives. These findings indicate that, for this maze task that emphasized speed, the performance of reflective and impulsive subjects was facilitated by appropriate learning strategies.     

An Evaluation of the Instructional Effectiveness of a Computer Lesson in Biomechanics

Abstract

The effects of augmented feedback on perceptions of ability (SPA), practice behaviors, and performance during motor skill instruction of a novel task were investigated. Fourth-grade students (N = 103) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (a) no feedback; (b) motivational feedback; (c) task feedback; or (d) motivation and task feedback. They then practiced simple and complex cupstacking skills. On a relatively simple task, the type of feedback did not have a significant effect on children's SPA, practice behaviors, or performance; but on a more complex task, differential effects of feedback were evident. Results indicate that informational feedback is an important factor in facilitating student engagement, fostering positive perceptions of ability, and ultimately improving performance on a challenging task.     

Analogy motor learning by young children: a study of rope skipping

Research in psychology suggests that provision of an instruction by analogy can enhance acquisition and understanding of knowledge. Limited research has been conducted to test this proposition in motor learning by children. The purpose of the present study was to examine the feasibility of analogy instructions in motor skill acquisition by children. Thirty-two children were randomly assigned to one of the two instruction protocols: analogy and explicit instruction protocols for a two-week rope skipping training. Each participant completed a pretest (Lesson 1), three practice sessions (Lesson 2–4), a posttest and a secondary task test (Lesson 5). Children in the analogy protocol displayed better rope skip performance than those in the explicit instruction protocol (p?<?.001). Moreover, a cognitive secondary task test indicated that children in the analogy protocol performed more effectively, whereas children in the explicit protocol displayed decrements in performance. Analogy learning may aid children to acquire complex motor skills, and have potential benefits related to reduced cognitive processing requirements.     

New Books Briefly Noted

Abstract

Little research has investigated the observational learning process from a developmental perspective. The purpose of this study was to extend previous research by considering two factors: performance versus learning and sequencing versus form scores. Children 'N = 60) comprising two age groups (5-0 to 6-11 and 8-0 to 9-11 years) were randomly assigned to verbal rehearsal only, model only, or model plus verbal rehearsal conditions. The task was a 6 part motor skill sequence in which proper sequencing and quality of form were assessed. A 2 × 3 × 4 (age group by model type by trial blocks) repeated measures MANOVA revealed a significant three-way interaction. Older children performed equally well under any of the model type conditions during both performance and learning. For younger children, a model plus rehearsal was superior to rehearsal only on sequence and form at performance and learning and superior to model only on sequence scores during the first two performance trial blocks. Model only and model plus rehearsal conditions were equally effective on form scores. These results suggest that age differences exist in the modeling of motor skills under conditions varying in model type, sequence and form scores, and performance and learning phases.     

Probing the allocation of attention in implicit (motor) learning

Abstract

We investigated the attention demands associated with implicit and explicit (motor) learning and performance using a probe reaction time paradigm. Two groups of participants learned a golf putting task over eight blocks of 50 trials performed from different distances. One group (errorless learning) began putting from the shortest distance (25 cm) and moved progressively back to the furthest distance (200 cm). A second group (errorful learning) began putting from the furthest distance (200 cm) and moved progressively closer (25 cm). Retention tests were used to assess learning in the two conditions, followed by transfer tests in which participants used either an unusual putter or a very unusual putter. Transfer to the unusual putters had an equivalent effect on the performance of both errorless and errorful learners, but probe reaction times were unaffected in the errorless learners, suggesting that execution of their movements was associated with reduced attention demands. Reducing errors during initial learning trials may encourage an implicit mode of learning and lower the demand for cognitive resources in subsequent performance.     

Movement pattern and parameter learning in children: effects of feedback frequency

Reduced feedback during practice has been shown to be detrimental to movement accuracy in children but not in young adults. We hypothesized that the reduced accuracy is attributable to reduced movement parameter learning but not pattern learning in children. A rapid arm movement task that required the acquisition of a motorpattern scaled to specific spatial and temporal parameters was used to investigate the effects of feedback (FB) frequency (100% vs. 62% faded) on motor learning differences between 19 school-age children and 19 young adults. Adults and children practiced the task for 200 trials under the 100% or faded FB condition on day 1 and returned on day 2 for a no-FB retention test. On the retention test, children who practiced with reduced feedback performed with greater temporal parameter errors, but not pattern error than children who received frequent feedback. Motor skill learning in children is influenced byfeedback frequency during practice that affects parameter learning but not pattern learning.     

External-Focus Feedback Benefits Free-Throw Learning in Children

Purpose: Considerable research supports the motor-learning advantage associated with an external focus of attention; however, very few studies have attempted to generalize these findings to children especially with attentional focus feedback. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of attentional focus feedback on motor learning in children. Method: Boys (n = 14) and girls (n = 14) aged 9 to 11 years old were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 gender-stratified groups: (a) internal-focus feedback or (b) external-focus feedback. Following initial instructions and task demonstration, participants performed 100 modified free throws over 2 days while receiving feedback statements respective to their attentional focus condition. Approximately 24 hr later, participants performed a retention test consisting of 20 additional free throws. Participants were also asked to respond to a retrospective verbal report at the end of each day to serve as a manipulation check. Results: Results of the analysis revealed a statistically significant learning advantage for participants receiving external-focus feedback, and retrospective verbal reports provide support for the self-invoking trigger and constrained action hypotheses. Conclusions: Future research should continue to incorporate retrospective verbal reports and explore potential causal links between internal attentional focus and self-evaluation.     

From novice to no know-how: A longitudinal study of implicit motor learning

The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the performances of implicit and explicit learners would converge over an extended period of learning. Participants practised a complex motor skill - golf putting - for 3000 trials, either with a concurrent secondary, tone-counting task (implicit learning) or without such a task (explicit learning). The cognitive demands of the secondary task were predicted to prevent the accumulation of verbalizable rules about the motor task. The implicit group reported significantly fewer rules than the explicit group on subsequent verbal protocols. The performance of the implicit group remained below that of the explicit group throughout the learning phase. However, no significant differences were found between groups during a delayed retention test. Additionally, for the participants in the explicit group only, a Reinvestment Scale score correlated positively with the number of rules accrued and negatively with overall putting performance during the learning phase. We use the results to argue against the excessive use of verbal instruction during skill acquisition, which might be unnecessary and ultimately might hamper performance under stressful conditions.