Influence of conspecific stress odors and shock controllability on conditioned defensive burying

In Experiment 1, rats received a session of 80 inescapable tail shocks or no shocks while restrained in a tube. During tests of conditioned defensive burying 24 h later, the bedding of the chamber contained odors from either stressed or nonstressed conspecific donor rats. Following a single prod shock, subjects that had had prior shocks or that were tested with the stress odors spent significantly less time burying the prod, made smaller piles of bedding, and displayed more freezing behavior. The combination of prior shock and stress odors during later testing enhanced these effects. In Experiment 2, a yoked group of rats that was given inescapable shocks, in contrast to a group that had wheel-turn escape training and one that was restrained but not shocked, later showed significantly less burying and more freezing when tested for defensive burying with stress odors present. In both experiments the duration of burying and the heights of piles were positively correlated, and both of these measures were negatively correlated with freezing. The demonstrated capacity of unconditioned stress odors to mediate different degrees of fear, depending upon the controllability of prior shock, is related to other studies of learned helplessness, and the predominance of freezing over burying is discussed in terms of various types of defensive strategies, stimulus-control processes, and the author’s stress-coping-fear-defense (SCFD) theory.     

Approach and escape to conspecific odors of reward and nonreward in rats

A three-compartment box was used, and a reward odor, or nonreward (extinction) odor, produced by another rat, was present in the middle compartment. Two control odor procedures were also used. The results showed that rats will approach a location in which another rat has previously been given reward more rapidly than they will escape from that location, but showed the opposite effect when the odor was produced by a rat undergoing extinction. The mere presence of an odor associated with another rat had the effect of producing much slower locomotion as compared to a no-odor control condition.     

Influence of conspecific and predatory Stressors and their associated odors on defensive burying and freezing responses

In Experiment 1, male rats were exposed to either aggressive (i.e., alpha) or nonaggressive conspecific colonies and tested 24 h later, with or without alpha odors, for freezing behavior and burying of a wall prod that had been the source of a brief electric shock. The results indicated that prior defeat experience and the presence of alpha odors alone during testing had no significant effects, but the combination of prior defeat and alpha-odor testing significantly decreased burying and increased freezing behavior. In Experiment 2, we examined the effects of noncontact exposure to a cat, as a predatory Stressor, during subsequent prod-shock tests involving the presence or absence of cat odors. Exposure to a cat failed to disrupt later prod burying and did not produce freezing. However, the presence of cat odors during testing significantly reduced the amount of defensive burying,without resulting in an increment in freezing. In Experiment 3, rats were given 1, 5, or 30 inescapable preshocks in the presence of either cat odors or a hedonically neutral citronella odor and were tested 24 h later for prod burying and freezing with or without these odors. Both the cat and the citronella odors resulted in a significant reduction in burying and an increase in freezing for rats given 5 and 30 preshocks and tested in the presence of these respective conditioned odors. For the groups that were given 5 preshocks, preshock and later testing in the presence of cat odors resulted in significantly less prod burying and more freezing than for rats that were preshocked and tested in the presence of citronella. The findings of these three ethoexperimental studies are discussed in terms of the learned-helplessness theory, the stress-coping-fear-defense (SCFD) theory, and the concept of selective CS-US associability.     

Long-term reaction of the rat to conspecific (frustration) odor

Rats’ choices in a T-maze were observed to determine (a) their long-term tendencies, in the apparent absence of reinforcement, to approach or avoid a goalbox containing a “frustration odor” stimulus generated by prior placements into the box of other rats given frustrative nonreward, and (b) the extent to which preferences for one or the other goalbox persisted following cessation of odor placements. The initial response to frustration odor was avoidance, though it took a few trials to develop. Avoidance was short-lived for most subjects, diminishing quickly and turning to a stable approach reaction, although three subjects developed an equally stable avoidance. These changes in response direction appeared to result from altered perception or interpretation of the odor rather than changed responsivity or alterations in the odor product itself. Preferences for one or the other of the goalboxes per se were but little affected by experiencing odor there.     

What the rat’s nose tells the rat’s mouth: Long delay aversion conditioning with aqueous odors and potentiation of taste by odors

In Experiment 1, olfactory bulbectomized and control rats were trained using operant conditioning to determine the taste threshold of aqueous amyl acetate. Concentrations below gustatory threshold were used in Experiments 2–5 to compare the effectiveness of odors with various concentrations of saccharin as cues for illness. The results showed the following: (1) The effectiveness of odor and taste was directly related to concentration; (2) the strength of an aversion to a concentration of taste could be matched by an appropriate concentration of an odor; (3) odor was as effective as taste with CS-US delays of 4 h; and (4) an effective odor potentiated an aversion to an otherwise ineffective taste. The results challenge the privileged role accorded tastes in food aversion learning and the manner in which tastes are held to interact with odors according to the sensory-and-gate channeling analysis of potentiation (Rusiniak, Hankins, Garcia, & Brett, 1979).     

A reexamination of the role of attention in learning from text

This paper reviews some of the recent models of selective attention and concludes that these models simplify and restrict the role of attention in reading and learning. It is maintained that the most critical problem of the models is that they do not acknowledge the important function of attention in the early stages of the reading process when meaning and importance ratings are first established. It is further suggested that reading and secondary task reaction times which have been used to measure attention, are inadequate as they cannot distinguish between different attention phases. A new model of how attention affects text comprehension is proposed. Finally, it is argued that to examine the complex effects of attention on reading and learning, novel research questions should be asked, and new ways to evaluate attention must be considered. More specifically, research on attention by cognitive and educational psychologists should utilize neuroscientific brain research methods, such as event-related potentials, and should integrate findings across research domains.     

从认知风格视角再议写作过程理论

写作过程理论认为写作是一种过程,由多个阶段构成。但语言学习者的认知风格差异会极大地影响其在不同写作阶段的态度和行为。因此,各个写作阶段的应用并非一成不变,针对学习者的认知风格特点,因地制宜,因材施教,才能最大程度地发挥写作过程理论对英语写作教学的指导意义。     

"巴敦调查团"来华考察动因及始末

20世纪初年,随着中国社会转型的日益深化和民族意识的觉醒,处于发展鼎盛时期的教会大学逐渐显露出潜在的危机。为化解教会大学所面临的生存危机,西方差会派出了“巴敦调查团”,对在华教会教育状况进行了详细的考察,提出的“更加有效率、更加基督化、更加中国化”的调整方针,在教会教育的发展史上产生了深远的影响。     

英语名转动词产生的动因探微

名转动词的使用在英语中十分常见,值得研究。从语言的经济原则、修辞需要、名词和动词之间的密切联系以及词汇空缺的填补这四个方面对英语名转动词产生的动因进行探讨很有必要。     

Hurdle-jump responding in the rat as a function of conspecific odor of reward and nonreward

A hurdle-jump escape response was employed to assess the laboratory rat’s aversion or attraction to different types of conspecific odor. Odorant donor subjects received 112 runway acquisition trials on a continuous reward schedule followed by 32 extinction trials, 112 acquisition trials on a 50% schedule of reward and nonreward followed by 32 extinction trials, or 144 “neutral” trials with no reward in the alley. Different groups of test subjects escaped from odor excreted by odorant subjects on (a) nonrewarded acquisition and extinction trials, (b) rewarded trials during continuous reinforcement, (c) rewarded trials during partial reinforcement, or (d) neutral trials; others escaped from a clean box. The principal findings were: (1) significant aversion to “odor of nonreward” appeared after the donor odorants had received 12 exposures to reward; (2) production of odor of nonreward by odorant subjects changed as a function of training experience with reward; (3) after repeated exposure to odor of nonreward, the escape response habituated; (4) greater or different odor excretion in extinction resulted from subjects trained on a continuous reward schedule than on a partial reward schedule. Relationships of the data to frustration theory were discussed, assuming that inferred differences in production of odor reflect differences in frustration reaction.     

Selection of models in contingency tables: A reexamination

Qualitative data often need analysis using log-linear models, as pointed out by Liu and Sanders. In this article, references to the state-of-the-art literature and software packages for analyzing such data are presented. We also illustrate the two types of log-linear models and present procedures for investigating both types.     

Subject selection in speech communication research: A reexamination

The purpose of the article is to: (1) identify the type of subjects used in published speech communication research over the last decade, (2) report the results of a survey of departments to determine present practices and policies regarding the use of subjects and (3) compare past and present subject selection practices. The review and survey indicate that, although a greater use of subjects from outside colleges has occurred, speech communication researchers continue to use college students as their primary source of subjects. Published articles generally do not report information needed for the replication and certification of findings.     

Metacognitive experiences and motivational state as aspects of self-awareness: Review and discussion

In the first section of this article, I will briefly examine the views on metacognition and learning that are expressed by each of the seven contributors. In the second half of the article I will provide the reader with my own perceptions of some of the broader theoretical issues and challenges that emerged from my reading of the articles.     

高师函授学员参与学习的动机研究

通过编制高师函授学员参与学习的动机量表,对我国高师函授学员参与学习活动的动机取向及其相关因素进行分析。发现高师函授学员参与学习主要有求知兴趣、职业与经济、他人或环境影响、体验或逃避、服务意识、社交关系六大类动机取向;动机取向与年龄、性别、学历水平等因素均存在相关。     

中学生英语学习动机调控策略研究

本文旨在研究中学生在英语学习中对动机调控策略的使用情况及其和英语成绩的关系。采用问卷的方式对105名高中二年级学生进行了调查,并使用SPSS11.5对数据进行了描述性统计分析、独立样本T检验和相关分析。结果表明：中学生对八种动机调控策略的使用频率均达到了中等或较高水平;女生对动机调控策略的使用频率高于男生;八种动机调控策略中,除后果设想之外的其他七种策略均与英语成绩正相关。     

鲁迅学术活动之动因探析

虽然鲁迅不刻意提倡学术．但回过头来看,他又取得了丰硕的学术成绩。鲁迅生命早期不同阶段的学术活动具有不同的动因．学术之于他的生命也具有了不同的涵义,那就是：在日本留学期间（1902—1908年）。鲁迅看重的是学术的实用性,他借此以拯救中国;自日本回国到为《新青年》写文章期间（1909—1918年）,鲁迅看重的是学术的无功利性．他借此以打发生命;自教育部欠薪始到去上海前（1920--1927年）这段时间．鲁迅看重的是学术的职业性,他借此以维持生活。     

中国近现代留学热潮中民众选择留学的动机探究

民众选择留学的动机,是影响我国近现代几次留学热潮的重要因素。对中国近代留学热潮进行研究,探讨民众留学动机产生的背景、动机、效果以及留学生对国家的贡献等对当代留学热具有启示作用。