Effectiveness of private tutoring during secondary schooling in Germany: Do the duration of private tutoring and tutor qualification affect school achievement?

Private tutoring is considered an effective measure to improve academic achievement. However, previous studies have come to different conclusions regarding its effectiveness. In this study, we conducted secondary analyses using data of two longitudinal studies (approx. 8000 secondary school students) and investigated the effects of private tutoring duration and different levels of tutors' formal qualifications on subject-specific grades and test scores in 4 school subjects. OLS-regression analyses showed neither a systematic positive effect of a longer duration of tutoring nor of higher qualified tutors when prior knowledge, motivational and sociodemographic variables were controlled for. However, we found significant positive interaction effects between tutors' qualifications and students’ prior knowledge in German tutoring. Overall, we find only weak evidence that private tutoring is effective but show that students may benefit from private tutoring under certain conditions.     

Exploring Year 6 pupils’ perceptions of private tutoring: evidence from three mainstream schools in England

While quantitative research on the nature and extent of private tutoring in England is increasingly available, very limited evidence exists regarding pupils’ voices in evaluating their participation in private tutoring. Thus, the present qualitative study seeks to investigate the perceptions of 14 Year 6 pupils from three primary schools in East Kent of receiving tutoring. Data were collected through semi-structured focus group interviews and pupils’ drawings. The data suggest that the participants displayed prevention (ought) orientation by conceiving tutoring as a powerful means to help them to pass the grammar school entrance exam and thus avoid failing their parents’ expectations. However, some participants gradually realised that the advantages of receiving tutoring were not restricted to tangible (quantifiable) benefits related to improved examination results. Tutoring also enabled them to achieve their desired possible self-image by boosting their self-esteem and interest in learning, and becoming more confident when socialising with others (i.e. intangible benefits). The participants acted agentively, not only reflecting on the benefits of tutoring but also on its disadvantages including creating pressure on their parents and themselves and being somewhat an unfair advantage in competition. From this qualitative study, pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research are suggested.     

Private tutoring in a high socio-economic secondary school in Israel and pupils’ attitudes towards school learning: A double-edged sword phenomenon

Private tutoring (PT) is a widespread educational phenomenon that blurs the conceptual boundaries of public and private education and can affect the formal school system and teachers’ work. This study examined whether participation in PT and the estimation of private tutors’ contributions are related to pupils’ attitudes towards teachers’ effectiveness. Based on a questionnaire administered to all pupils (n = 855) from Grades 7 to 10 from one secondary school located in an affluent area at the centre of Israel (respondence rate, 83.2%), it was found that overall, there were few differences in students’ attitudes between participants in PT compared to those who did not participate in PT. However, among those who participate in PT, their attitudes towards school teachers are related to the distinction between the academic and social-affective contribution of private tutors. When PT is related to academic spheres, it enhances positive attitudes towards school teachers and when PT is related to socio-affective aspects, it increases criticism. The findings highlight the complex interactions of PT with mainstream education and emphasise the challenges school teachers face in view of the trend for more personalised learning approaches.     

An Investigation into Target Setting and Academic Tutoring to Promote Student Learning

There has been a move in schools towards the use of pupil performance data to set targets. It is believed that effective target setting can motivate pupils and staff to strive to reach, or beat, target grades. Alongside this has been a move to promote more effective dialogue about learning between teachers and pupils through the use of academic tutoring. There is a belief that in combination a system of target setting and academic tutoring might lead to more effective learning, increased achievement and therefore school improvement. This investigation into one system of target setting and academic tutoring suggests that although these systems may promote increased achievement in terms of examination performance, they do not necessarily help students to learn more effectively. For this schools must attempt to develop in ways that make learning an explicit subject of discussion, and help students learn about learning. Therefore, it is on the development of student meta–learning that such school improvement efforts should focus.     

A cross-national analysis of the student- and school-level factors affecting the demand for private tutoring

Private tutoring has become a worldwide phenomenon, yet there is little empirical evidence for the main factors leading the demand for private tutoring across nations. Using data from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study of 2003, this study classified the countries into four different groups according to the proportion of student participation in private tutoring and student achievement. Then, the study explored student- and school-level factors influencing the demand for private tutoring. From the HGLM analysis, the results revealed that the demand for private tutoring in Korea and Taiwan, which have higher participation rates in private tutoring and high-school-quality levels, is mostly explained by student-level variables (educational aspirations, instrumental motivation, self-confidence, and father’s education) and school context variables (the community size and school SES). Meanwhile, the demand for private tutoring in the Philippines and Romania, both of which have high incidences of private tutoring and low-school-quality levels, varies widely among schools, and many of the school process variables (e.g., the use of remedial classes, amount of school homework, frequency of tests, and the use of grouping by ability) account for the relationships with private tutoring.     

The association between private tutoring and access to grammar schools: Voices of Year 6 pupils and teachers in south-east England

England has experienced recent growth in the prevalence of private tutoring (PT). The qualitative study reported in this article aims to explore the perceptions of 14 Year 6 pupils and their teachers from three state-maintained primary schools in East Kent on PT participation and its impact on grammar school admissions. Data were collected through individual and focus group interviews and pupils' drawings. The data revealed that teachers were not totally aware of the scale of PT in their classes and ascribed PT merely to parental decision to prepare their child to pass the 11-plus, grammar school entrance test. However, some pupils indicated that they shared in the decision to have PT, affirming that it was not only for 11-plus test familiarisation and practice. PT also contributed to greater pupil confidence, involvement and enthusiasm for learning, together with improvement in social interactive skills (i.e. intangible benefits). Both teachers and pupils also explained the disadvantages of PT, including the psychological and financial burdens on the whole family and changing the playing field level. Teachers proposed some solutions to help Year 6 pupils without PT. From this qualitative study, pedagogical implications as well as areas for ongoing research are suggested.     

A two-level study of predictors of private tutoring attendance at the beginning of secondary schooling in Germany: The role of individual learning support in the classroom

More and more students attend private supplementary tutoring to improve their academic achievement. Private tutoring might be understood as a reaction to insufficient instructional quality in school, especially regarding individual support. However, it might also be possible that parents generally see insufficient grades as an indicator of lacking support and engage a tutor in hopes of improvement or to enhance a competitive edge for their children. So far, the relationship between tutoring attendance and perceived individual learning support during classroom lessons has not been tested. We used multilevel analyses based on N = 2,842 students in 102 Grade 5 classrooms at German academic track schools to test for a relationship between private tutoring in several subjects and students’ shared perception of the instructional quality in these subjects. On the individual level, we controlled for typical predictors of private tutoring such as academic achievement and family income, as well as for additional variables such as working behaviour and parental homework assistance. In classrooms with more individual support, students were less likely to start private tutoring in English. However, we did not find comparable relationships for tutoring in mathematics and German. Therefore, school principals and educational policy-makers should monitor the incidence of private tutoring and consider within-school structured tutoring programmes as an effective measure to improve academic achievement and to meet parents’ desire for individualised instruction.     

School factors underlying demand for private supplementary tutoring in English: urban and rural variations in Bangladesh

Private supplementary tutoring has long existed in Bangladesh, as elsewhere in the world, but in recent decades has become much more visible. Much tutoring “shadows” or reproduces formal schooling as fee-based academic teaching outside school hours. This paper focuses on school factors that shape demand for private supplementary tutoring in English at the secondary level, drawing on data gained from both quantitative and qualitative methods. The paper is especially concerned with urban and rural variations, noting that rates of tutoring are greater in urban areas but that many factors converge to create similarities. Private tutoring in English is highly demanded because English is a compulsory course; and in addition to being a subject in its own right, it assists in the learning of other subjects. While private tutoring may support the academic learning of some pupils, it also has problematic dimensions. As such, the spread of tutoring across urban and rural areas is not necessarily to be welcomed.     

Shadow education: patterns and scale of private supplementary tutoring in English in secondary education at urban Dhaka in Bangladesh

Private supplementary tutoring with an additional fee is generally called shadow education, and this has become a common phenomenon in urban Dhaka, where patterns and scale of tutoring in English have been remarkable in recent years. This study used a mixed-methods approach that included quantitative and qualitative data collected from a survey and individual interview. Tutoring in English has been a regular feature of the teaching profession in this urban area. The paper examines various patterns of private tutoring in English and focuses on the amount of tutoring, including the tutoring received and not received by students in urban Dhaka. It shows the variations of scale regarding tutoring in English between male and female students. The study also identifies different types of private tutors who deliver supplementary tutoring. Finally, the choices pupils make regarding their evaluation on the effectiveness of shapes of tutoring in English are discussed.     

Adapting instruction to address individual and group educational needs in maths

This study, combining classwide curriculum-based measurement and peer-mediated instruction, used a single-subject research design to address the effectiveness of two grouping adaptation strategies (heterogeneous small-groups versus peer tutoring) to accommodate individual and group differences in learning. Academic performance in the domains of number and arithmetic skills of 19 low, average, and high achieving first-grade linguistic minority pupils was measured by recording scores over 12 weeks and across multiple observations. The results revealed a significant increase in number sense and arithmetic skills when pupils worked in pairs. Whole group, ability group, and individual comparisons for each dependent variable were made. Results are also discussed in terms of an attempt to craft strategies for including academically diverse pupils in mainstream classrooms.     

The effectiveness of private tutoring: students’ perceptions in comparison with mainstream schooling in Hong Kong

This paper examines Hong Kong students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of private supplementary tutoring relative to mainstream schooling. Drawing on survey and interview data, it shows that large proportions of secondary school students receive private tutoring. Students generally perceive private tutoring and private tutors to be more effective in the provision of examination support compared with mainstream schooling and teachers. However, perceptions vary according to students’ self-reported academic levels and motives for taking private tutoring. The operations of the parallel sector of private tutoring have significant implications for the nature of schooling and therefore need to be considered by teachers and school administrators. The Hong Kong data contribute to the international analysis of private tutoring and add a significant component to the wider conceptual literature.     

Modern foreign language teachers – don’t leave those kids alone! Linguistic-cultural “give and take” in an ad-hoc tutoring scheme

This paper addresses the theme of social inclusion through language learning. The focus is on an ad-hoc tutoring scheme set up between newly arrived British migrant pupils and French monolingual pupils in a small secondary school in the south-west of France. Though the original objective of this tutoring scheme was to improve the English skills of the younger pupils, feedback reports indicated that it also had a positive impact on the relationship between the British migrant pupils and their French peers. Teachers believed that those involved participated more fully in class, and appeared more self-assured and generally happy thanks to the interpersonal relationships this scheme helped to forge. This study demonstrates the necessity of analysing the socio-cultural context migrants may find themselves in, in order to identify potential challenges. The ad-hoc tutoring scheme described here is an example of how language learning can support the integration and inclusion of “new generation” migrants into everyday school life.     

Private Supplementary Tutoring in the Czech Republic

The study contributes to the literature on private supplementary tutoring by shedding light on this phenomenon in the Czech Republic. The aim of the paper is to identify the reasons for seeking out private supplementary tutoring and to assess the factors underlying its demand. In the representative sample of 1,265 senior upper-secondary school students from two distinct regions of the Czech Republic, 37% acknowledged participation in private tutoring lessons (provided by individuals) and 10% reported enrollment in preparatory courses for university admission (organized by institutions) during their upper-secondary studies. It seems that both enrollment in different educational tracks and specific school subjects are associated with different reasons for taking private tutoring lessons. The results of binary logistic regression suggest that the mother’s educational attainment, family income, students’ academic performance, residence in the capital city, and female gender are significant predictors of students’ enrollment and participation in the explored private tutoring activities. These findings confirm the strong influence of family background on educational attainment identified in previous Czech social-stratification research. In a wider European context, the patterns of private supplementary tutoring resemble those in neighboring countries.     

Regulating private tutoring consumption in Korea: Lessons from another failure

The proliferation of private tutoring is a widespread phenomenon, Korea being one the most notable examples. Indeed, successive Korean governments have attempted to limit private tutoring consumption for more than four decades. In 2006, state education authorities imposed a restriction on operating hours of hagwon (private tutoring academies) in an attempt at reducing the economic and time resources spent on private tutoring. Since then, some provincial authorities have modified the curfew on hagwon. We take advantage of these policy shifts to identify average treatment effects taking a difference-in-differences approach. Our findings suggest that enforcing the curfew did not generate a significant reduction in the hours and resources spent on private tutoring, our results being heterogeneous by school level and socioeconomic status. Demand for private tutoring seems to be especially inelastic for high school students, who increased their consumption of alternative forms of private tutoring. As the consumption of private tutoring is positively correlated with academic performance and socioeconomic status, strengthening the curfew may have a negative effect on the equality of educational opportunities.     

A Multi‐Level Analysis of School Improvement: Changes in Schools' Performance over Time

The improvement of schools takes place over extended periods of time. Consequently longitudinal studies which track successive cohorts of pupils through their schooling are required if estimates of the extent of improvement are to be established. To date, hardly any studies have collected the necessary data. Those studies which have had appropriate data have tended to emphasise the extent of stability of schools' effectiveness over time rather than the extent of any changes. A shift in conceptual framework is called for if improvements in schools' effectiveness are to be the central focus of concern.

The study is based on three successive cohorts of pupils passing through some 30 English secondary schools. It uses examination results as the outcome measure and includes a prior attainment measure amongst the variables used to control for differences between schools' intakes. A multi‐level strategy for conceptualising and modelling data on schools' changes in performance over time is offered.

In common with earlier studies the research shows that there is a good deal of stability in schools' effectiveness from year‐to‐year; only a small proportion of the schools in the study (between a fifth and a quarter) were improving or deteriorating in terms of their effectiveness. A particularly striking finding of the research was that whilst several schools improved in effectiveness only one initially ‘ineffective’ school did so consistently. The implications of the study for future research on school improvement are discussed.     

The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam

Private tutoring is a widespread phenomenon in many developing countries, including Vietnam. Using the Vietnam Living Standards Surveys 1997–1998 and 1992–1993 for analysis, this paper finds evidence that private tutoring in Vietnam is a necessity in the household budget for both primary students and lower secondary students, and the trend to attend private tutoring is stronger at higher education levels. There is no evidence of gender discrimination in expenditure on private tutoring. Ethnic minority students spend less on private tutoring at the primary level but not at the lower secondary level, as do students living in rural areas. However, spending on private tutoring would fall significantly if the qualifications of primary school teachers are increased. Private tutoring is found to have significant impact on a student's academic performance, but the influence is larger for lower secondary students. This paper contributes to the available estimation techniques by extending the simultaneous Tobit model of Amemiya [(1974). Multivariate regression and simultaneous equation models when the dependent variables are truncated normal. Econometrica, 42(6), 999–1012] to a joint Tobit-ordered probit econometric model to address the possible endogeneity of household spending on private tutoring.     

The effects and characteristics of family involvement on a peer tutoring programme to improve the reading comprehension competence

The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of an educational programme involving peer tutoring at school and family tutoring at home on child reading comprehension achievement in Catalunya, Spain. We drew upon a sample of 303 primary school students from 8 to 11 years old and 223 family tutors from home (61.5% mothers, 15% fathers, 17% both parents, 6.5% siblings). Reading comprehension performance was assessed through standardised tests in pre and post-test bases. Background variables were collected by means of student and parent questionnaires and also teacher and family interviews. An analysis of the family tutoring interactions was also performed. The main results showed positive effects for all the students, but especially for the 223 students who received family support. Overall, the study reveals the effectiveness of peer learning to improve reading comprehension skills and the potential of family involvement for the development of academic skills when the school provides trust and support for it.     

Motivational Characteristics in Mathematical Achievement: a study of gifted high‐achieving,gifted underachieving and non‐gifted pupils

The aim of this study was to examine whether motivational‐emotional variables such as intrinsic orientation toward schoolwork, Mathematics anxiety, academic self‐esteem, attribution of success and failure in Mathematics and situational interest in Mathematics could differentiate different groups of mathematically gifted pupils. The research was based, theoretically, on an interactional model of giftedness. The sample consisted of 147 selected primary school pupils (9‐10 years of age) who were assigned to the following groups for comparison: mathematically gifted achievers (n = 31), mathematically gifted under‐achievers (n = 31) and mathematically non‐gifted pupils (n = 85). The results of a discriminant analysis show that the gifted pupils differ from the non‐gifted ones in attaining higher levels of intrinsic orientation toward Mathematics, lower Mathematics anxiety, lower attribution of success to external factors and effort, as well as in lower attribution of failure to external factors and abilities. Also, gifted achievers have lower attribution of success to effort than gifted under‐achievers and non‐gifted pupils.     

The challenge of promoting self-regulated learning among primary school children with a low socioeconomic and immigrant background

The authors explore the effects of student tutoring as an approach to provide support on self-regulated learning (SRL) to fifth- and sixth-grade students with a low socioeconomic or immigrant background. In total, 401 Flemish (Belgium) students participated. A quasi-experimental study with pretest, posttest, and retention test control group design was used, combining teacher ratings, self-report questionnaires, and think-aloud protocols. The teacher rating results show a significantly positive effect from pretest to posttest for the experimental condition, but this was not maintained at the retention test. The questionnaire and think-aloud results reveal no significant effects on students’ SRL. However, differential effects depending on students’ motivational profile were found. This study illustrates the complexity of promoting SRL among primary school children with a low socioeconomic or immigrant background, recommending further research into conditions and factors influencing the effectiveness of student tutoring programs promoting SRL.     

Preparing students for college admissions tests

Attaining successful outcomes on the SAT can have profound educational and financial consequences for college-bound students. Using archival data from a private tutoring centre, we investigated variables we hypothesised to contribute to SAT score increases. Our analyses revealed significant effects of time on task and rate of SAT homework completion. Starting preparation earlier in the junior year and distributing tutoring sessions over larger intervals contributed to higher SAT score improvements. Testing effects were significant: more frequent practice tests significantly increased SAT scores. Official SAT administrations contributed more to score increases than did unofficial practice tests. Individual tutoring hours yielded greater increases than did group tutoring hours. Student characteristics such as gender, SES, or private or public school attendance were not significant. Implications for improving test preparation for students as well as directions for future research are discussed.