Within-session changes in responding during delayed matching-to-sample and discrimination procedures

Two experiments examined within-session changes in responding during discrimination procedures. In Experiment 1, rate of responding changed significantly within sessions during symbolic delayed matching-to-sample tasks when the delay between the stimulus and the choice period was short (1–5 sec), but not when it was long (8–12 sec). The percentage of responses that were correct did not change within sessions. In Experiment 2, response rates increased and then decreased within sessions during both S1 and S2 when successive discrimination procedures provided high, but not low, rates of reinforcement. Discrimination ratios sometimes increased within sessions. These results question two potential definitions of attention as explanations for within-session changes in response rates. They are more compatible with explanations based on concepts such as arousal, satiation, habituation, and interfering responses.     

Differences between rates of responding emitted during simple and multiple schedules

Pigeons pecked keys for food reinforcers delivered by several variable-interval and multiple variable-interval schedules. The rates of responding emitted during the simple schedules were not systematically different from the rates emitted during the multiple schedules when the components of the multiple schedule were identical. The rates of responding emitted during the components were usually greater than the rates emitted during comparable simple schedules when the components were more favorable than the added components of the multiple schedules. Response rates during the components were not significantly lower than those during comparable simple schedules when the components were less favorable. The observation of higher rates of responding during the more favorable components conforms to a prediction of several additive theories (e.g., Rachlin, 1973) but violates a prediction of Herrnstein’s (1970) theory. However, the additive theories are brought into question by the fact that changing the location of the discriminative stimuli did not change the pattern of results.     

学校教育中之惩罚策略探讨

惩罚作为教育手段古而有之,为提高惩罚的有效性,保证教育工作顺利运行,教师方面需要增强法律意识,正确使用惩罚权,惩罚前详尽调查、惩罚中讲究艺术、惩罚后做好安抚;学校方面要加强法制教育、制定合法班规、建立监督机制、细化学生申诉制度;社会方面正确舆论导向、家长正视惩罚。     

中国古代惩治腐败的措施探析

政府公职人员的腐败问题在任何国家、任何朝代都不同程度地存在。中国古代历朝统治者为了保证公职人员廉洁从政,采取了若干措施惩治腐败,这些措施虽然在一定程度上取得了积极的效果,但也未能从根本上遏制腐败现象。本文对中国古代惩治腐败的措施的探析,对当前我国的反腐倡廉工作有一定的借鉴意义。     

转型时期意大利婚姻形态的变化

在近代化转型时期的意大利,传统的婚姻伦理观念受到冲击,性道德观念发生变化,人们私生活混乱,导致严重的社会问题;14、15世纪之前意大利妇女普遍早婚,夫妇年差较大;随着精英妇女参与宗教、政治、文化活动,中下层妇女参加社会化生产,男女尤其妇女初婚年龄上升,夫妇年差缩小,到17、18世纪,晚婚晚育成为近代婚姻模式的主流.     

A behavior systems view of responding to probe stimuli during an interfood clock

Two experiments used a behavior systems approach to relate the form of responses during an interfood clock to the temporal distance of the individual clock stimuli to food. Stimuli proximate to food should better control a focal search mode and related responses, whereas stimuli temporally distant from food should better control a general search mode and related responses. Experiment 1 conditioned two groups of rats with a sequence of four equal-length 12-sec clock stimuli that terminated with food and then tested for the conditioning of a general search mode by presenting an unconditioned moving probe stimulus (either a rolling ball bearing or a rotating mechanical door) during each of the clock stimuli. Consistent with a behavior systems view, contact with the ball bearing was markedly greater during a clock stimulus distant from food. The absence of similar differential contact of the door across the clock stimuli showed that the effect was specific to the ball bearing rather than a general response to stimulus dimensions of movement and sound. Experiment 2 showed that the general search mode was controlled by the clock stimulus rather than the passage of time.     

Developmental Changes in Imitation from Television during Infancy

Infants' (N = 276) ability to learn from television under seminaturalistic conditions was examined in five experiments with 12-, 15-, and 18-month-olds. In all experiments, an adult performed a series of specific actions with novel stimuli. Some infants watched the demonstration live, and some infants watched the same demonstration on television from prerecorded videotape. Infants' ability to reproduce the target actions was then assessed either immediately or after a 24-hour delay. Infants of all ages exhibited imitation when the actions were modeled live. There were age-related and task-related differences, however, in infants' ability to imitate the same actions modeled on television. The role of perceptual, attentional, and cognitive development in the ability to learn from television is discussed.     

教师在适用教育惩罚手段中的角色定位

教育惩罚是教育界广泛关注的问题。从教师在教育惩罚中的角色误区入手,通过对当前教师在教育惩罚中角色失当的原因分析,对教师在教育惩罚机制中的角色给以定位——理性的道德建设者、心理健康的理疗师、法律意识的塑造者,以促进教育工作者有效利用惩罚手段,刚柔并济,张弛有度,培养出有责任、有理性的下一代,促进社会的和谐发展。     

Child abuse and physical punishment of children in Finland

This study looks at child abuse as a part of family violence and includes a literature review of the previous Finnish studies on child abuse. The data of the study comes from a poll conducted in Finland in the autumn of 1981 of 530 of the Finnish population older than 14 years of age: 3% of respondents had observed physical violence towards small children and 1% towards teenagers; 44% of the respondents were of the opinion that physical punishment of children was needed at least on certain occasions. In Sweden the corresponding percentage was only 26. The majority of Finns (60%), however, was in favor of a special law to ban all child abuse and physical punishment of children as was done in Sweden in 1979. The recommendation of the author, based on both theoretical consideration and the poll results is that such a law would be helpful in advancing the wellbeing of children.     

Physical punishment of children and wifebeating in cross-cultural perspective

This paper reports the results of a cross-cultural test of the relationship between wifebeating and physical punishment of children in a probability sample of 46 small-scale and folk societies. The study indicates that rare or infrequent wifebeating is associated with rare or infrequent physical punishment, but that frequent wifebeating is unrelated to the frequency of physical punishment.     

牵连犯在司法实践中的认定及处罚

牵连犯是客观存在着的一种犯罪现象在法律上的反映.我国现行刑法尚无明文规定,但在理论界进行了学术探索.司法实践中已对牵连犯如何认定和处罚积累了丰富经验.     

Empathic responding in children of battered mothers

The present study assessed the empathic abilities of children whose mothers had been the targets of conjugal violence. Thirty-two mothers and their preschool children served as subjects. There were equal numbers of boys and girls. Half of the mothers had a history of having been abused by their husbands while the other half came from non-violent relationships. The instability of the abused mothers' familial relationships was further established by means of a Home Climate Questionnaire. Analysis of this instrument revealed that although abusive husbands were not reported to be physically violent with their children, they were more verbally aggressive than their non-abusive counterparts. Four measures assessed the empathic abilities of the children: role-enactment, social inference, role-taking, and social behavior. A 2-way MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) run on these measures indicated a significant main effects of groups on all but the social behavior measure. There was also a significant groups by sex of child interaction on the role-taking measure. The results suggest the early and pervasive influence which marital discord may have on the empathic abilities of young children. Both direct and vicariously mediated forces may influence this facet of the child's social development.     

Identifying and responding to needs in education

Do educators know what children need? Most of the school curriculum is supported by the assumption that educators and policymakers do indeed know what children need, and the curriculum is designed to satisfy these inferred needs. In trying to meet inferred needs, however, we often neglect the expressed needs of our students. Sometimes, of course, we rightly fear that expressed needs are mere momentary desires and that they should be curbed and replaced by the important needs we have already identified. But often, by ignoring expressed needs, we sacrifice opportunities to develop individual talents, intrinsic motivation, and the joys of learning. In this article, I explore the nature of needs and ways in which schools might better identify and respond to them. I start with a brief discussion of care ethics because it, in contrast to the dominant ethics of justice, gives attention to needs before moving on to matters of justice.     

论行政处罚中单位证明的证据效力

单位证明在行政处罚中经常被作为证据使用,但是其效力如何,就存在较大争议。本文认为对单位证明的证据效力不能够一概而论,应该分形成于事前的单位证明和形成于事后的单位证明两种不同的情况分别对待。     

Changes in Cooperation and Self-Other Differentiation during the Second Year

Cooperation in peer interaction emerges during the second half of the second year. A consideration of the skills and knowledge entailed in these early forms of cooperation suggests that young children's emerging ability to differentiate self from other as causal agents may relate to their ability to coordinate behavior with age mates toward a common goal. Children at 12, 18, 24, and 30 months were observed in same-age, same-sex dyads (8 dyads per age) while attempting to solve a simple cooperation problem. They were also individually administered an elicited imitation task used to index decentration, or self-other differentiation. No 12-month-old dyad could cooperate, 18-month-olds did so infrequently and apparently accidentally, whereas 24- and 30-month-olds were able to coordinate behavior with one another quickly and effectively. Children who were better able to accommodate their behavior to one another during cooperation also represented the agency of others at a more advanced, decentered level.