Within-session changes in responding during delayed matching-to-sample and discrimination procedures

Two experiments examined within-session changes in responding during discrimination procedures. In Experiment 1, rate of responding changed significantly within sessions during symbolic delayed matching-to-sample tasks when the delay between the stimulus and the choice period was short (1–5 sec), but not when it was long (8–12 sec). The percentage of responses that were correct did not change within sessions. In Experiment 2, response rates increased and then decreased within sessions during both S1 and S2 when successive discrimination procedures provided high, but not low, rates of reinforcement. Discrimination ratios sometimes increased within sessions. These results question two potential definitions of attention as explanations for within-session changes in response rates. They are more compatible with explanations based on concepts such as arousal, satiation, habituation, and interfering responses.     

Within-session changes in responding during concurrent schedules that employ two different operanda

Five rats responded on several concurrent schedules in which pressing a key produced reinforcers in one component and pressing a lever produced reinforcers in the other component (Experiment 1). Four pigeons responded on several concurrent keypeck treadlepress schedules (Experiment 2). The programmed rates of reinforcement varied from 15 to 240 reinforcers per hour in different conditions. Rates of responding usually changed systematically within experimental sessions, and the changes were similar for the two components of a concurrent schedule. These results imply that within-session changes in responding may not confound the predictions of theories that describe the ratio of the rates of responding during the two components of concurrent schedules. Instead, within-session changes may be controlled by a mechanism that integrates the reinforcers obtained from the two components.     

Instrumental avoidance acquisition by goldfish in a Y-maze using explicit and response-contingent cues

In two experiments, goldfish learned a discriminated avoidance response in a Y-maze. When alternative response alleys were simultaneously and differentially cued at trial onset, the goldfish learned to swim to the alley associated with US omission. When alternative response alleys were not differentially cued at trial onset and the US association cue was contingent upon an initial response to one of the alternatives, goldfish learned, following the initial response, to stay in the initially chosen alley when the response-contingent cue indicated US omission, but to leave the initially chosen alley and swim to the alternative alley when the response-contingent cue indicated US pairing.     

Differences between rates of responding emitted during simple and multiple schedules

Pigeons pecked keys for food reinforcers delivered by several variable-interval and multiple variable-interval schedules. The rates of responding emitted during the simple schedules were not systematically different from the rates emitted during the multiple schedules when the components of the multiple schedule were identical. The rates of responding emitted during the components were usually greater than the rates emitted during comparable simple schedules when the components were more favorable than the added components of the multiple schedules. Response rates during the components were not significantly lower than those during comparable simple schedules when the components were less favorable. The observation of higher rates of responding during the more favorable components conforms to a prediction of several additive theories (e.g., Rachlin, 1973) but violates a prediction of Herrnstein’s (1970) theory. However, the additive theories are brought into question by the fact that changing the location of the discriminative stimuli did not change the pattern of results.     

学校教育中之惩罚策略探讨

惩罚作为教育手段古而有之,为提高惩罚的有效性,保证教育工作顺利运行,教师方面需要增强法律意识,正确使用惩罚权,惩罚前详尽调查、惩罚中讲究艺术、惩罚后做好安抚;学校方面要加强法制教育、制定合法班规、建立监督机制、细化学生申诉制度;社会方面正确舆论导向、家长正视惩罚。     

Herrnstein’s equation for the rates of responding during concurrent schedules

A modification of the nonlinear curve-fitting procedure proposed by Wetherington and Lucas (1980) was used to assess how well Herrnstein’s (1970) equation for the rates of responding during concurrent schedules described performance. The equation fitted some results very well, accounting for 80% or more of the variance in the data in studies that used moderate-duration changeover delays and provided the same positive reinforcers, operanda, and simple schedules in the two components. The equation fitted the data poorly in other studies. The k parameter changed with several variables; it was not as constant as Herrnstein (1974) suggested. R₀ did not fit Herrnstein’s interpretation as reinforcement from unprogrammed sources. Forty percent of all values of R₀ were negative, and another 23% were unreasonably large (greater than 50 reinforcers/h). The data suggest that Herrnstein’s equation is not a general theory of concurrent-schedule responding, and that Herrnstein’s interpretation of k and R₀ should be modified.     

中国古代惩治腐败的措施探析

政府公职人员的腐败问题在任何国家、任何朝代都不同程度地存在。中国古代历朝统治者为了保证公职人员廉洁从政,采取了若干措施惩治腐败,这些措施虽然在一定程度上取得了积极的效果,但也未能从根本上遏制腐败现象。本文对中国古代惩治腐败的措施的探析,对当前我国的反腐倡廉工作有一定的借鉴意义。     

转型时期意大利婚姻形态的变化

在近代化转型时期的意大利,传统的婚姻伦理观念受到冲击,性道德观念发生变化,人们私生活混乱,导致严重的社会问题;14、15世纪之前意大利妇女普遍早婚,夫妇年差较大;随着精英妇女参与宗教、政治、文化活动,中下层妇女参加社会化生产,男女尤其妇女初婚年龄上升,夫妇年差缩小,到17、18世纪,晚婚晚育成为近代婚姻模式的主流.     

A behavior systems view of responding to probe stimuli during an interfood clock

Two experiments used a behavior systems approach to relate the form of responses during an interfood clock to the temporal distance of the individual clock stimuli to food. Stimuli proximate to food should better control a focal search mode and related responses, whereas stimuli temporally distant from food should better control a general search mode and related responses. Experiment 1 conditioned two groups of rats with a sequence of four equal-length 12-sec clock stimuli that terminated with food and then tested for the conditioning of a general search mode by presenting an unconditioned moving probe stimulus (either a rolling ball bearing or a rotating mechanical door) during each of the clock stimuli. Consistent with a behavior systems view, contact with the ball bearing was markedly greater during a clock stimulus distant from food. The absence of similar differential contact of the door across the clock stimuli showed that the effect was specific to the ball bearing rather than a general response to stimulus dimensions of movement and sound. Experiment 2 showed that the general search mode was controlled by the clock stimulus rather than the passage of time.     

Behavioral contrast and responding during multiple food-food,food-water,and water-water schedules

Five pigeons pecked lighted keys for food reinforcers delivered by several multiple variable interval 2-min variable interval 2-min schedules. At different times, the components of the multiple schedule both supplied food reinforcers, both supplied water, or one supplied food and the other supplied water. Rates of responding during the water component of the food-water schedule were lower than the rates during comparable components of the water-water schedules (negative contrast). But, the rates of responding during the food component of the food-water schedule were not greater than the rates of responding during comparable components of the food-food schedules (absence of positive contrast) at two different levels of water deprivation. These results raise questions about several theories of behavioral contrast, and they may restrict the scope of any theory that attributes positive and negative contrast to symmetrical factors.     

教师在适用教育惩罚手段中的角色定位

教育惩罚是教育界广泛关注的问题。从教师在教育惩罚中的角色误区入手,通过对当前教师在教育惩罚中角色失当的原因分析,对教师在教育惩罚机制中的角色给以定位——理性的道德建设者、心理健康的理疗师、法律意识的塑造者,以促进教育工作者有效利用惩罚手段,刚柔并济,张弛有度,培养出有责任、有理性的下一代,促进社会的和谐发展。     

Developmental Changes in Imitation from Television during Infancy

Infants' (N = 276) ability to learn from television under seminaturalistic conditions was examined in five experiments with 12-, 15-, and 18-month-olds. In all experiments, an adult performed a series of specific actions with novel stimuli. Some infants watched the demonstration live, and some infants watched the same demonstration on television from prerecorded videotape. Infants' ability to reproduce the target actions was then assessed either immediately or after a 24-hour delay. Infants of all ages exhibited imitation when the actions were modeled live. There were age-related and task-related differences, however, in infants' ability to imitate the same actions modeled on television. The role of perceptual, attentional, and cognitive development in the ability to learn from television is discussed.     

Academic responding during instruction and reading outcomes for kindergarten students at-risk for reading difficulties

The purpose of this study was to investigate the academic responding of students at-risk for reading difficulties in beginning reading instruction. Opportunities for kindergarten students at-risk for reading difficulties to respond academically during teacher-facilitated reading instruction in the general education classroom were examined in relation to student reading achievement as well as social behaviors. Student academic responding during teacher-facilitated instruction significantly predicted end of year reading achievement. Teacher perceptions of students’ social skills (positive correlation) and problem behaviors (negative correlation) were significantly correlated with academic responding. When academic responding and teacher perceptions of social behaviors were examined together, only teacher perceptions of academic competence and problem behaviors predicted spring outcomes.     

Child abuse and physical punishment of children in Finland

This study looks at child abuse as a part of family violence and includes a literature review of the previous Finnish studies on child abuse. The data of the study comes from a poll conducted in Finland in the autumn of 1981 of 530 of the Finnish population older than 14 years of age: 3% of respondents had observed physical violence towards small children and 1% towards teenagers; 44% of the respondents were of the opinion that physical punishment of children was needed at least on certain occasions. In Sweden the corresponding percentage was only 26. The majority of Finns (60%), however, was in favor of a special law to ban all child abuse and physical punishment of children as was done in Sweden in 1979. The recommendation of the author, based on both theoretical consideration and the poll results is that such a law would be helpful in advancing the wellbeing of children.