Development of social categories and stereotypes in early childhood: The case of “The Arab” concept formation, stereotype and attitudes by Jewish children in Israel

Stereotypes, which are based on the categorization process, are learned. Children first acquire a category of a social group and subsequently attribute characteristics to the group (i.e., form a stereotype). This paper illuminates the development of stereotypes among young children on the basis of cognitive theories of conceptual development. Specifically, several studies investigating the concept formation of “the Arab” among Jewish children in Israel are reported. These studies concern the five following research questions: When do children acquire the concept “an Arab”? On what basis do children form the concept “an Arab”? How do children understand the concept “an Arab”? What is the affective meaning of the concept “an Arab”? What is the visual image of “an Arab” in the minds of children? The results of the reported studies show that children acquire the word and the concept “an Arab” very early. From the beginning, even though little knowledge is associated with the concept, it has negative connotations. Young children described Arabs mostly by referring to violent and aggressive behaviors, and the characterization was unidimensional. These results demonstrate the strength of the Israeli cultural stereotype of Arabs and its influence on young children on the one hand, and show the general principles of category and stereotype development, on the other.     

Consensual and individual stereotypic beliefs about international students among American host nationals

The present study examined the consensual stereotype of an extraordinarily heterogeneous social group, international students who are sojourning in the United States, among American host nationals. The content and valence of the cultural stereotype was assessed using a multicomponent, free-response methodology with N=100 American college students. On the whole, consensual and individual stereotypic representations of international students were somewhat favorable, although a number of negative attributes were consistently ascribed to the group. The percentages of agreement among participants concerning the attributes of foreign students were substantial, indicating that international students are regarded as a fairly homogenous outgroup by domestic students, notwithstanding the extreme heterogeneity of the foreign student population. Individual stereotypic beliefs about international students were significantly correlated with overall attitudes and behaviors (social contact) toward the group. The negative evaluative content of participants’ individual stereotypic beliefs was strongly related to prejudicial attitudes and social avoidance of the group.     

Intercultural interaction and the categorization process: A conceptual analysis and behavioral outcome

Intercultural interaction is seen as a situation in which the way others' behavior is categorized (that is, given meaning) is often inaccurate or inappropriate due to unfamiliar cues. These errors cause incorrect expectation, which other research has found to cause decreases in problem solving ability, adaptability, and health. A better understanding of this phenomena can be gained through an awareness of how information is believed to be organized in meaningful ways in human thought: information is classified (categorized) on the basis of similarity. Since people vary in their category “width,” an understanding of “category width” should give useful insight into intercultural inferences. A review of three studies in fact supports the validity of this categorization approach in making predictions about individual's reactions to people of other cultures at both the attitudinal and behavioral level. Overall, the concepts of categorization and category width are seen as unifying constructs which bring together not only a number of intercultural phenomena but also have implications for understanding and training individuals in an intercultural context.     

Language attitudes and social group memberships

This study examined the saliency of two independent dimensions of group identity—gender and ethnicity—for attitudes toward different languages in an Israeli context. The study is presented within the framework of social identity theory and treats the implications of multiple group memberships for the interpersonal/intergroup continuum of social behavior. The sample included 343 ninth grade Jewish and Arab students in Israel who responded to semantic differential scales for each of three languages: Hebrew, Arabic and English. It was hypothesized that gender would be the relevant group category for attitudes toward English, which is considered to be “ethnically neutral”, but not for Hebrew and Arabic. For the latter two languages, the saliency of ethnic group membership was expected to override any gender-language link. The results basically supported the hypotheses with the exception that ethnic group membership was a relevant category for English in addition to gender.     

Peers’ perceptions of Japanese returnees

Many studies have examined the reentry process of Japanese children raised abroad. Results suggest that “feeling different” is a key factor in describing their experiences. These studies, however, were based only on self-reports of returnees. The current study examined returnees’ peers’ perceptions and the factors that affected them. Results indicated that the returnees’ peers’ perceptions could be summarized by two factors: “advantage” and “difference/disadvantage.” Those who had studied abroad and who had known many returnees had a balanced perspective of the returnee experience. Women were more likely to perceive advantages while those who were older were more likely to perceive differences/disadvantages.     

Acculturation preferences of majority and minority adolescents in Germany in the context of society and family

Four hundred and fifteen adolescents (134 German majority and 281 minority members) completed a questionnaire which measured attitudes towards acculturation, life satisfaction and intergroup relation variables. German majority members preferred integration followed by assimilation (according to Berry's taxonomy), while minority members had a clear preference for integration. Integration was more strongly associated with favourable intergroup relations and, in the case of minority members, life satisfaction, than the other acculturation orientations. Furthermore the study showed that discrepancies between own acculturation attitudes and perceived attitudes of the other group may influence life satisfaction and intergroup attitudes. Perceived acculturation preferences of the respondents’ parents were also examined. German majority adolescents perceived their parents’ attitudes as more favourable to exclusion than their own, and minority members perceived their parents’ attitudes as leaning more towards separation than their own. In the majority sample, these discrepancies were not related to any of the outcome variables, but in the minority sample they influenced life satisfaction, perceived quality of intergroup relations, and tolerance.     

Value change in Japan

This study explores the relationship between socioeconomic change and value change. The general assumptions of unidimensionality of modern and traditional values and their exclusive character is questioned on the basis of available data from surveys carried out in Japan and in the West. Traditional values in Japan obviously change in some respect, but remain stable in other aspects. The process of changing values seems to cause internal conflicts for certain subgroups such as women and adolescents. A comparative analysis can demonstrate that some Japanese values seem “modern” or “post-materialist” for the West, but they are part of the traditional Japanese value system. Such “modern” values fulfill different functions in different cultures. A theoretical framework for the study of social change and changing values is proposed, focusing on macro- and microlevel processes of change.     

The trouble with assimilation: Social dominance and the emergence of hostility against immigrants

In exploring the “status boundary enforcement hypothesis,” Thomsen, Green and Sidanius (2008) theorized and confirmed that Social Dominance Orientation would be more strongly correlated with a general willingness to aggress against immigrants when respondents are primed with an immigrant who is eager to assimilate into the dominant culture than when they are primed with an immigrant who prefers cultural isolation (separation). However, because assimilation differs from separation on both the home culture component and the host culture component, the actual source of this effect remains unclear. By using an assimilation versus integration contrast that differ only on the home culture component, the present study confirmed and extended Thomsen et al.’s findings. We were able to conclude that this counter intuitive effect, at odds with most research in this area, is primarily driven by people with high SDO having more negative reactions to immigrants’ willing to abandon their original cultures rather than to immigrants wanting to maintain contact with the host culture. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Coping with the threat of westernization in Hong Kong

Most developing countries show great concern that they will compromise their cultural integrity if they import foreign models of economic development. The Chinese in Hong Kong have been dealing with this problem since they were colonized in 1841. This paper explores their various responses to this potential threat. Tajfel's (Tajfel, H. (1974). Social Science Information13, 65–93) social identity theory is advanced as a theoretical tool in considering (a) how Chinese understand Westernization throughout history and in contemporary Hong Kong, and (b) how they stereotype themselves and various relevant groups. It is hoped that this analysis will be of some value to persons in countries considering the problem of importing models of development.     

“Cultural fit”: A new perspective on personality and sojourner adjustment

One hundred and thirty-nine Americans resident in Singapore participated in the research which investigated the influence of “cultural fit” on sojourner adjustment. Subjects completed questionnaires including measurements of extraversion, psychological adjustment (depression) and sociocultural adaptation (social difficulty). To assess “cultural fit” discrepancy scores were calculated on the absolute differences between subjects' extraversion scores and host culture norms. Correlational analyses indicated that extraversion per se was unrelated to either psychological or sociocultural adjustment; however, as predicted, larger discrepancies in extraversion between subjects and members of the host culture were associated with higher levels of depression (p < .01). Discrepancy scores were also analyzed in conjunction with a median split, dividing subjects into low and high discrepancy groups. T-tests further confirmed that the large discrepancy group experienced more symptoms of depression (p < .01). There were no significant differences, however, in the amount of social difficulties experienced by low and high discrepancy groups.     

Emblematic gestures among Hebrew speakers in Israel

A field study was conducted in Israel to identify emblematic gestures recognized and used by Hebrew speakers. Studies which have identified the emblematic gestures of particular ethnic or national groups are reviewed and criticized. This study seeks to contribute increased rigor and systematology to the identification of particular groups' emblematic gestures.Twenty-six gestures commonly used in classroom interaction were selected for testing. The instrument used was Schneller's form, “Investigations of Interpersonal Communication in Israel.” Subjects included college students, members of YMCA classes for pensioners, and others. On the instrument, subjects noted their recognition and interpretations of the investigator's encoding intentions, their certainty or interpretation and where they learned each gesture.Whereas previous studies of this nature accepted around 70% interpretive agreement among subjects, this study indicates that at least 90% is a more reliable measure by which to label gestures “emblems.” In addition, correlations were tabulated for the effects of subjects' age, ethnicity, years in Israel, certainty about interpretation, and accuracy of interpretation.The findings of this study were: (a) eight gestures were identified as emblems, and three more gestures identified as possible emblems, (b) slightly negative although insignificant correlations were found between increased age, years in Israel, expressed certainty of interpretation and accuracy of interpretation, and (c) natives and subjects from 20–24 years of age tended to have the highest rates of expressed certainty of interpretation as well as accuracy of interpretation.The findings are compared with those of three other studies of Jews' gesturing and differences between the studies are considered. Recommendations include continuing such studies and comparing the results of related projects in order to form a comprehensive picture of particular groups of people.Limitations are discussed. These include: (a) a less than representative sample, (b) lack of a consistent conversational context, (c) potential for distortion in the decoding process, (d) the lack of a unified gesture labeling system, and (e) the possibility of cultural or researcher bias.     

The concepts of individual, self, and group in Japanese National, Japanese-American, and European-American samples: a semantic differential analysis

This study empirically investigated variations in the semantic/affective construction of the concepts of “individual”, “self”, and “group” in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Data were collected on the semantic differential ratings for these concepts among 110 Japanese National (JN), 110 Japanese-American (JA), and 110 European-American (EA) university students. Compared to the other two samples, the JN sample rated the concept of “individual” as weaker and more fast, the concept of “self” as more fast, and the concept of “group” as more strong and more slow. It also was revealed that the JA sample’s ratings of the three concepts tended to fall between the JN and EA samples’ ratings. Altogether, the findings offer further evidence that the individualism-collectivism distinction has psychological implications and predictive power.     

Communicating love: Comparisons between American and East Asian university students

This study examined cultural differences in communicating love among 143 young adults from the US and East Asian countries of China, Japan, and South Korea. Through inductive analyses we examined similarities and differences in the activities and beliefs Americans and East Asians have about love in friendship and marriage, as well as the activities and ways in which love is expressed. Americans and East Asians reported that caring, trust, respect, and honesty were all important beliefs about love in friendship, and trust was an important belief about love in marriage. Love in marriage was seen as important and unconditional for Americans, while East Asians were more likely to report caring as an important belief. Sports, preparing food, and shopping were activities associated with expressing love for Americans, while talking and preparing food constituted activities for expressing love for East Asians. Finally, both US and East Asian students expressed love to a friend through acts of support, open discussion, and the sharing of common experiences, while they expressed love to a spouse through physical intimacy, acts of support, and expressions of love such as “I love you” and “I miss you.”     

Consensual social dominance orientation and its correlates within the hierarchical structure of American society

The concepts of “false consciousness”, “the political formula”, and “ideological hegemony” have been around for some time, but have not been measurable. We present an operational definition of these related ideas, which we call “consensual” ideology. We measure consensual ideology with respect to social dominance orientation (SDO), which is defined as a general positive orientation towards group dominance. We define consensual SDO as that portion of SDO that is shared across social groups, such as different ethnic groups. We also test social dominance theory's ideological asymmetry hypothesis using Euro- and African-American university students. This hypothesis states that the relationship between support for group inequality and social ideologies and policies supportive of hierarchical group relations will be significantly more positive within high-status groups than within low-status groups. Consistent with theoretical expectations, even though, by operational definition, Blacks and Whites have the same mean level of consensual social dominance orientation, there was consistent evidence for the type of asymmetry assumed. The theoretical implications are discussed.     

Enhancing trainee satisfaction with cross-cultural training programs via prior warning

A review of the cross-cultural training literature indicates that trainees frequently enter training programs with mental sets which are incongruent with the goals of the programs. This condition (termed in the literature the “Einstellung Effect”) sometimes results in substantial dissatisfaction with the training program experience on the part of the trainee. Prior warning has been used successfully in some areas of psychological research to counteract Einstellung effects, but it has yet to be utilized in an attempt to reduce the effect of negative mental set on a training program. This study examined the effect of prior warning in cross-cultural training programs on trainee satisfaction. Students enrolled in four “Missionary Preparation” courses at a large, church-related university served as subjects. Two of the groups (each receiving one of two training methods) had the prior warning treatment, while the other two groups (one receiving each method) received no prior warning and served as control groups. Consistent with the hypothesis that trainee Einstellung effects can be reduced via prior warning, it was found that the subjects' satisfaction scores in the prior warning conditions were significantly higher than those in the no warning conditions.     

International relocation of inpatriate managers: assessing and facilitating acceptance in the headquarters organization

The shortage of qualified managers to assign to overseas positions has necessitated rethinking of the viable candidates pools. A relatively new group of global managers have emerged, inpatriate managers. These are foreign nationals and third-country nationals who are relocated to the organization's domestic headquarters to serve as a “linking-pin” to the global marketplace. This paper examines challenges to effectively incorporating these inpatriate managers into the domestic organization. The various issues with inpatriate manager adjustment to the domestic macro and organizational culture are examined. In addition, the necessary social support in work and non-work contexts is discussed.     

Business communication as cultural text: Exchange and feedback of promotional video clips

Our research is a response to the need to improve the understanding of the complexity of global professional communication. To investigate the complex cultural interpretations that producers and audiences apply to professional texts, we developed a two-year interactive project. Business students in New Zealand and Israel produced promotional “texts” – video clips to promote a university program – which they exchanged with their counterparts overseas to receive feedback. We adapted models of home-made visual communication and advertising which used the categories of participants, settings, topics, and style, to analyze the eight clips. Emergent findings suggested two more categories – information and language – as important analytical tools. Variables of age, gender, intra- and intercultural differences, and (cultural) context also resulted in student audiences’ multiple interpretations of the texts. The outcomes indicate the need to extend the culture-in-context approach for a “situation focused communication approach,” where the primary focus is a group of producers and their audience as they produce and interpret a professional text. This approach also foregrounds contextual variables and a plural understanding of culture to accommodate the potential for miscommunication of business and professional texts in pluricultural contexts.     

Through the looking glass: Ethnic and generational patterns of immigrant identity

Traditional theories of the “looking glass self” and “social mirroring” assume that people's views of their own group reflect the societal view. Crocker and colleagues (Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Brodnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among white, black, and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 503–513), however, found ethnic group differences in the extent to which private and public views correspond. We report data from two studies that further examine this correspondence in (a) a sample of first- and second-generation Black immigrants and (b) samples of first- and second-generation Asian/Pacific Islander, Black, Latino, and White immigrants. Study 1 shows significant shifts for Black immigrants, from a high correlation between public and private regard in the first generation to a non-significant relationship in the second generation. Study 2 replicates the findings for the Black sample and shows different patterns of association for the other three groups. It also shows that endorsement of multiculturalism moderates the relationship between public and private regard among first generation Black and Latino immigrants. We discuss these results in terms of managing the negative value associated with one's group in society and consider immigration as a site for studying social change.     

Learning styles and their impact on cross-cultural training: An international comparison in France, Germany and Quebec

Every person has his or her own individual way to learn and to solve problems in day-to-day situations. These personal cognitive strategies, acquired in a long socialization process are called “learning styles” and may differ depending on gender, age or culture.In this study, the learning styles of over 300 students in business administration in France, Germany and Quebec are examined with the Learning Style Inventory (LSI). Representative and significant learning differences where found. This is why the LSI can be used in a first step for the illustration and comparison of typical patterns of learning. In a second step the results may be of use to international trainers in making decisions about course design and methods of cross-cultural training in relation to the learning profiles of the participants.     

Japanese private university as a socialization system for future leaders in business and industry

The Japanese Private University is viewed as a modern socialization system for processing youth into leadership positions in business and industry. A “degreeocracy” and an “assimilation” hypothesis were proposed to explain the process of psychological development through the university. The “degreeocracy” hypothesis ascribes a utilitarian view of one's certification by a particular university. According to this hypothesis, students will come to shape their behaviors and attitudes to be compatible with the “degree” as they progress from freshmen to seniors. In contrast, the “assimilation” hypothesis denotes that the extent to conforming to, and identifying with the norms and goals of the university will depend upon social and educational background. Three groups differing in terms of the potential for assimilation were identified based upon social and educational background. Data were collected from samples of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors majoring in engineering in one of the largest private universities in Japan. Results supported both hypotheses. Differences among “assimilation” subgroups were significant but these differences were not exacerbated over grade year. The findings are discussed in terms of the particular nature of the private university and the larger employment system for college graduates in Japan.