Where have they all gone?: Classroom attention patterns after Acquired Brain Injury

Certain groups of pupils who have sustained an Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) have a different pattern of attention within the classroom which interferes with learning and social interactions. The delineation of these groups is suggested. By looking in detail at the classroom behaviour of eight pupils, a common account for classroom behaviour post‐ABI is questioned, and an alternative explanation put forward. Practical ways to promote learning for this group are explored.     

Scaffolding practices that enhance mathematics learning

It is over 25 years since Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100) introduced the idea of ‘scaffolding’ to represent the way children’s learning can be supported. Despite problems, this metaphor has enduring attraction in the way it emphasises the intent to support a sound foundation with increasing independence for the learner as understanding becomes more secure. It has resonance with the widely accepted notion in teaching of construction and the constructivist paradigm for learning. The discussion that follows will characterise some teaching approaches that can be identified as scaffolding, revisiting some of the original classifications, and identifying further scaffolding strategies with particular reference to mathematics learning. Examples will be given from studies relating to geometry learning with four to 6 year olds and to arithmetic learning with older pupils.     

Thinking allowed: use of egocentric speech after acquired brain injury (ABI)

This paper explores the use of thinking aloud made by young people who have sustained a severe acquired brain injury (ABI). The phenomenon is compared with the concepts of egocentric speech and inner speech before the form of thinking aloud by pupils with ABI is examined. It is suggested that by using thinking aloud, this group of pupils is able to engage in internally persuasive dialogue and is therefore enabled to take part in classroom learning.     

Extending the Scaffolding Metaphor

A brief overview overview is provided of how the scaffolding metaphor has been defined in educational contexts. This includes a discussion of what theories guide decision-making regarding what to scaffold as well as considerations as to whom or what does the scaffolding (human teachers, peers and tutors or computer tutors or support tools designed for learning environments). The scaffolding construct intersects instruction and assessment in that instructors assess learners to determine what type or level of scaffold is sufficient to help learners reach their potential. Such assessments are dynamic and ongoing and can occur through dialogue and social interactions with or without the use of technology. Hence scaffolds are provided when and where necessary but they are also removed when evidence of learning exists. This article describes how the contributors to this issue have extended the scaffolding metaphor to open-ended technology based environments. Empirical studies are reviewed with regard to how they extend the scaffolding metaphor in terms of the theories that guide the design of scaffolds, the metrics designed to assess how scaffolding affects learning and in terms of teaching scaffolding techniques to others.     

Scaffolding speech and writing in the primary classroom: a consideration of work with literature and science pupil groups in the USA and UK

In considering scaffolding as it is enacted across two disciplines – literacy and science – the focus of this paper is specifically on issues related to teacher scaffolding of pupils' learning in these areas. Features of scaffolding in action are drawn out that reflect a concern with developing a principled approach to instruction and learning. The three notions around which the paper pivots are: scaffolding the processes of learning in classroom; the importance of this type of scaffolding for independent learning; and the idea of appropriateness as it relates to the level of scaffolding employed by the teacher. The strategies used by teachers to encourage groups of pupils to adopt and use ways of thinking appropriate to the subject context are explored, and this is linked to Mercer's (2000) conception of the Intermental Developmental Zone, which explored how the concepts of scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development ( Vygotsky, 1978 ) might be extended to group contexts, rather than dyadic ones. Some consideration is given to how individual pupils may conceive of the teacher's structuring of thinking as scaffold or straitjacket.     

Self‐esteem in Children with and without Motor Co‐ordination Problems

This article presents results from a study of 36 pupils (8–10 years of age) in face‐to‐face conversations with their teachers about water as an environmental phenomenon based on a photograph of a rainforest. The teachers’ rather vague goal was to have the pupils talk about the water cycle. The sessions were audio‐recorded and analyzed with respect to: (1) scaffolding strategies used by the teachers, (2) possible implications of these strategies on the pupils’ sense‐making, and (3) what accounts of the water cycle as a school‐science learning‐content were made. Three different patterns of scaffolding strategies were found. Some pupils did not even come close to talking about the water cycle, whereas others arrived at a rather fragmented picture.     

Literacy Acceleration and the Key Stage 3 English Strategy – comparing two approaches for secondary-age pupils with literacy difficulties

Literacy for pupils in the secondary phase of education is a key concern for practitioners and policy makers alike. Tony Lingard is the SENCo at a large comprehensive school in the south-west of England but he is also involved in staff development and school improvement initiatives across the UK. Literacy Acceleration is an intervention strategy for pupils with literacy difficulties that he and his team at school have been developing over many years. He undertook the research reported in this article at a comprehensive school where Literacy Acceleration was well established and being delivered by experienced staff. The research found that Year 7 and 8 pupils with literacy difficulties who followed Literacy Acceleration made significant progress with reading and spelling while similar pupils, who only had access to National English Strategy classes, did less well over the period of the study. The research also found that most of the pupils who experienced Literacy Acceleration in small groups, as well as mainstream English lessons, preferred being taught in smaller Literacy Acceleration groups where they also felt that they were making more progress. In concluding his article, Tony Lingard argues that pupils with literacy difficulties need specific, targeted interventions and that it may be a mistake to assume that the normal secondary English curriculum effectively meets their needs. This small-scale study therefore offers a challenge to a widely accepted policy. It suggests that abandoning strategies that focus on addressing the particular needs of pupils with literacy difficulties (of which Literacy Acceleration is one example) may not best serve the interests of a significant group of learners.     

Scaffolding Analysis: Extending the Scaffolding Metaphor to Learning Artifacts

The scaffolding metaphor was originally developed to describe the support given by a more expert individual in a one-on-one interaction. Since then, the notion of scaffolding has been applied more broadly, and it has been transformed and generalized. Most recently, it has been used by researchers in the learning sciences to describe features and functions of technological artifacts, especially those of educational software. In this article, we present an analytic framework that we believe can guide and systematize these new uses of the scaffolding metaphor. In this new framework, "scaffolds" are not features of artifacts or situations, nor is "scaffolding" something that may be occurring (or not) in a given situation that we observe. Rather, a scaffolding analysis is a kind of comparative analysis that we perform on learning interactions. Because this analysis is comparative, it always produces results that are relative to specific choices that we make in framing the comparative analysis. In this article, we present a theoretical argument for our proposed framework and illustrate the definition by applying it to two software environments.     

Teaching and Learning Metaphor

In this study I look at recent work done by psychologists in the field of metaphor comprehension as well as longer‐established philosophical theories. I suggest that there is a great deal that English teachers can gain by having a broader understanding of metaphor. I look at how Year 7 pupils, in particular, can benefit a great deal from such notions.     

Entrepreneurship education: motivation and effort for pupils with special needs in Norwegian compulsory school*

Pupil enterprises are a widespread type of entrepreneurship education. In this working method, pupils start up, manage and close a business over short period of time. National and international policy documents claim that practical working methods through the use of pupil enterprises are beneficial to increase motivation by being a realistic and cross-curricular approach. This paper investigates whether this is the case for pupils who receive special education. No previous research has focused on the situation for this group of pupils when working with pupil enterprises. The data are collected from a survey with the participation of 1880 pupils in the 10th grade. Our econometric results indicate that participation in pupil enterprises has no particular impact on motivation or effort for pupils receiving special needs education. Even though there are many positive features with pupil enterprises and they offer a practical and realistic way of learning, we do not find evidence to support that pupil enterprises also have a positive effect on the general school motivation and effort. Thus, the political claim of the practical dimension as a solution to increase motivation for learning in school is not supported by our findings.     

Teachers on perceived traits and academic achievements of regular pupils and pupils with special needs in mainstream primary schools

When looking for answers to the question of academic (non)achievement of regular pupils and pupils with special needs, it is necessary to take into account the extraordinary complexity of factors, ranging from psychological across instructional to home environment variables. The academic achievement is not only a reflection of the pupil’s knowledge, but is also influenced by the pupil’s behaviour, the teacher’s expectations and finally the relationship established between the teacher and the pupil. This paper contributes answers to the question which of the traits, perceived by teachers, explain the academic achievements of regular pupils and pupils with special needs. Our analysis shows that perceived traits that explain the academic achievement of regular pupils refer to academic as well as social behaviour, disruptive behaviour and self-regulatory behaviour; therefore, they cover all areas of perceived traits we studied. In pupils with special needs as a whole and in particular groups of pupils with special needs, the factor which presents disruptive social behaviour proved as insignificant, which consequently means that the academic achievement of pupils with special needs depends more on academic and self-regulatory behaviour, task activity and social inclusion.     

The classical classroom: enhancing learning for pupils with Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)

This paper seeks to draw parallels between different approaches to classroom instruction and two contrasting musical styles and to examine how pupils with Acquired Brain Injuries (ABI) might fare in each. A polyphonic classroom is defined as one where an awareness of multiple layers of meaning are encouraged to enhance the learning opportunities, whereas in a classical classroom most of the layers expressly support a single dominant line. While this analogy cannot be stretched too far, it is suggested that, after an ABI, a pupil might progress their learning more easily in a classical-style classroom.     

Emerging thoughts on an approach to engaging pupils in effective group talk in science

Group talk opportunities in science can be a rich site for conceptual change. The role of the teacher is vital in scaffolding the exploratory talk which can lead children to talk their way to new understandings and clarify their ideas with peers. This study aims to uncover teacher strategies which lead to effective talk for developing scientific understanding. The findings of this small-scale ethnographic case study suggest that the temporal organisation, the way in which the teacher organises the timing of group discussion activities, may have an impact upon the nature of the pupils’ dialogue.     

Who gets to play? Investigating equity in musical instrument instruction in Scottish primary schools

There is a widely held view that learning to play a musical instrument is a valuable experience for all children in terms of their personal growth and development. Although there is no statutory obligation for instrumental music provision in Scottish primary schools, there are well-established Instrumental Music Services in Local Education Authorities that have been developed to provide this facility for pupils. This article presents the findings of a study that was aimed at investigating the extent to which the opportunity to undertake instrumental instruction in Scottish primary schools is equitable. The study employed a mixed-methods approach. Data were gathered from 21 Scottish primary schools, a total pupil population of 5122 pupils of whom 323 pupils were receiving instrumental instruction. The analysis involved an investigation of the academic profile of this group, the representation of children with additional support needs (ASN) and the nature of their ASN. A qualitative analysis of policy and guideline documents and interviews with Heads of Instrumental Services, headteachers and instrumental instructors served to explain and illuminate the quantitative data. The findings showed that particular groups of children with ASN were significantly under-represented and offer explanations of the processes by which this occurs.     

Scaffolding 5-year-old children in Japanese kindergarten collaboratively retelling a tale

This study reports an analysis of how children in a Japanese kindergarten are scaffolded when facing the challenge of collaboratively retelling a kitsune story they have been told. What is referred to as a kitsune story is an example of a trickster tale with foxes as anthropomorphised animals. The participants were ten 5-year-old children and their teacher. Told a story by their teacher, the children were asked later to collaboratively retell it. How this retelling activity is supported – theorised in terms of the metaphor of scaffolding – is analysed on the basis of recordings. The findings show the nature of this evolving process. The conclusion is that the metaphor of scaffolding may require some contextual specification to remain a functional conceptual – and in extension, pedagogical – tool in activities fundamentally different from the activity studied in Wood, Bruner and Ross’ founding 1976 study.     

Assessing the social and affective outcomes of inclusion

The systematic assessment of the social and affective outcomes of inclusion has been lagging behind the assessment of academic outcomes. This is particularly problematic in view of research evidence supporting concerns about peer rejection and bullying. In this article, Norah Frederickson and Elizabeth Simmonds, of University College London, and Lynda Evans and Chris Soulsby, from Foxwood Special School, report their evaluation of the social and affective outcomes of a special- mainstream school inclusion initiative that places particular emphasis on peer preparation. Measures completed by pupils were used to assess peer group inclusion, social behaviour, bullying and feelings of belonging at school. Results showed that pupils who had transferred from special to mainstream schools experienced positive social outcomes and none experienced peer group rejection. However, results were less positive for mainstream pupils with special educational needs and the authors discuss possibilities for development. Trends in peer reports of bullying suggest that there is no room for complacency and that ongoing monitoring is required.     

Developing a Holistic Assessment Stance in Student Teachers

Over the last 10 years far-reaching changes have been introduced to the education system of England and Wales. In particular, the curriculum in state schools has been prescribed through the introduction of a National Curriculum. Associated with the National Curriculum is an assessment system involving teachers undertaking the on-going assessment of pupils, as well as externally set national tests, the results of which are published. These changes have had a profound effect on the training needs of in-service teachers and on the content and structure of training courses for pre-service teachers. The assessment system linked to the National Curriculum is extremely complex. There are huge demands on the time available for pre-service teacher training. This means that teacher educators struggle to find valid ways to train students to develop good assessment practices that will enhance students' teaching and the learning achieved by their pupils. This paper reports on the attempts of one group of course tutors to develop a means of achieving this goal.     

Researching the views of pupils with multiple and complex needs. Is it worth doing and whose interests are served by it?

Because of what are perceived by some as potential challenges it is still commonplace for research to fail to seek the opinions of pupils with multiple and complex needs. While many such pupils do have significant communication difficulties, along with other disabilities, which are undoubtedly a constraint, it is crucial in order to be inclusive, that methods of fostering pupil voice are sought. This piece of practitioner‐based research seeks to do this by focusing on the introduction of an aided communication system, Talking Mats? , for pupils with multiple and complex needs in a mainstream secondary school setting. The study highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the introduction of Talking Mats. The notion of ‘research’ with this group of pupils is considered and the key issues of reliability, validity and ethics discussed. The paper concludes by reflecting on the findings and gives a number of practical ideas for future practitioner researchers.     

A computer card game for the learning of basic aspects of the binary system in primary education: Design and pilot evaluation

This paper presents the design, features and pilot evaluation study of a computer card game for the learning of basic aspects of the binary system (BS) by primary level education pupils. This design was based on modern social and constructivist theories of learning, in combination with basic game design principles. Pupils are asked to play against the computer with cards featuring Binary Numbers (BNs). To engage successfully with the game, pupils are provided with opportunities to review their previous knowledge of the decimal system and, subsequently, to use analogical reasoning to make connections between this knowledge and basic aspects of the BS. Several scaffolding elements are also provided for the pupils to construct, verify, extend and generalize their knowledge, at the same time using essential learning competencies. The game was piloted in the field using real pupils (20 6th Grade pupils) with encouraging results. Finally, an attempt has been made to address essential points of this game that have contributed to its becoming a successful learning environment. Addressing these points could be useful for both designers of educational computer games for Computer Science (CS) education and educators in Computing.