Components of reading comprehension and scholastic achievement

The aim of this study was to understand whether the reading comprehension process is better explained by a single or by multiple factors. 184 students (9 to 13 years old) were presented with a recently devised battery of tests, that measure ten aspects of reading comprehension. Structural equation modelling showed that a two factors model better accounts for the data compared to a one or a three factors model. Results confirmed the hypothesis which distinguishes between ‘basic’ and ‘complex’ aspects of reading comprehension. The second goal of the study was to analyze the relationship between the two-components model and scholastic achievement. Our results highlighted that the more ‘complex’ aspects of reading comprehension, reflecting some metacognitive knowledge and control processes, are the better predictors of scholastic achievement.     

Learning progress assessment and goal setting: Effects on reading achievement,reading motivation and reading self-concept

This study investigates the effects of learning progress assessment (LPA) combined with student-set goals on students’ reading achievement, reading motivation, and reading self-concept in fourth grade. Classes (n = 41) were assigned to either an LPA group with goal setting (LPA-G), an LPA group only (LPA), or a control group (CG). Students of both LPA groups completed eight LPA tests over a period of six months, and teachers received information about their learning progress. Students in the LPA-G group specified goals before the tests and reflected their goal achievement afterwards. Results indicate that growth in reading was higher for students in the LPA group compared to students in the two other groups. Unexpected negative effects of the goal-setting procedure were found on the development of intrinsic reading motivation and individual reading self-concept. The results are discussed with regard to teacher behavior and the use of diagnostic information for instruction.     

Gendered pathways to educational aspirations: The role of academic self-concept,school burnout,achievement and interest in mathematics and reading

The aim of this study was to examine lower secondary school students' (N = 1152) pathways to educational aspirations. The study used multi-group structural equation modelling to investigate the predictions of academic self-concept, school burnout, achievement, and interest in mathematics and reading, in relation to educational aspirations for boys and girls. While certain factors were influential for students' academic aspirations irrespective of gender, some interesting differences also emerged. Academic self-concept and interest in reading predicted educational aspirations for both groups. However, gendered pathways emerged in how achievement and interest in mathematics predicted educational aspirations. Interest in mathematics predicted girls’ educational aspirations, whereas mathematics achievement was a significant predictor for boys. School burnout had negative indirect effects through interest in reading and mathematics in both groups, but for girls, there was also a direct positive effect on educational aspirations.     

Relations between mathematics achievement growth and the development of mathematics self-concept in elementary and middle grades

Creating an educational program that results in positive science, technology, engineering, and mathematics or STEM-oriented outcomes for all students is an important education objective and federal policy directive in the United States. In addition to developing strong mathematics foundations in Grades K–8 that are closely associated with successful STEM outcomes, intrapersonal skill development is also critical to academic and postsecondary success. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 the current study applied structural equation growth modeling to examine relationships among mathematics achievement in Grades K–1 and Grades 3–8, and mathematics self-concept development across Grades 3–8. Study results revealed that students reported declining levels of mathematics self-concept across the middle grades. Importantly, third grade reports of self-concept were associated with both mathematics achievement at kindergarten entry and third grade mathematics achievement; however, mathematics achievement at kindergarten entry was also associated with the development of mathematics self-concept in third through eighth grade. In addition, after accounting for mathematics achievement in Grades K–1, mathematics achievement growth in Grades 3–8 was directly associated with mathematics self-concept development across the same time period. Implications for future research, mathematics instruction, and curriculum development are discussed.     

Mathematics achievement and mathematics learning strategies: Cognitive competencies and construct differentiation

Responding to a survey requires cognitive abilities similar to those for any other linguistic task. We argue that, when faced with a cognitively challenging task, individuals respond by simplifying the task, declining it, or performing it poorly. Using the 2003 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA 2003) data sets, we document that the extent of construct differentiation in students’ mathematics learning strategies is strongly associated with their level of mathematics achievement. Likewise, the higher the level of mathematics achievement, the lower is the probability of a non-response to the mathematics learning strategy questions. Finally, the higher the students’ level of mathematics achievement, the more varied were their responses to the learning strategies items. These associations were examined across 40 participating countries.     

Expertise,inhibitory control and arithmetic word problems: A negative priming study in mathematics experts

Solving arithmetic word problems such as “Mary has 25 marbles. She has 5 more marbles than John. How many marbles does John have?”, in which the relational term (more than) interferes with the arithmetic operation (subtraction), relies in part on the ability to inhibit an overlearned ‘add if more or subtract if less’ heuristic in children, adolescents and adults. Here, we used a negative priming (NP) paradigm to investigate whether experts in mathematics need to inhibit this heuristic when solving this type of arithmetic word problem. We found NP effects in experts in mathematics, but with a smaller amplitude than those in non-experts (N = 40). We replicate these results in a second experiment (N = 62) in which we matched experts and non-experts on general intelligence and inhibitory control ability. This suggests that experts also need to inhibit the ‘add if more or subtract if less’ heuristic to solve such problems but were more efficient at inhibiting the heuristic than non-experts.     

Pathways to reading,mathematics, and science: Examining domain-general correlates in young Chinese children

Early competencies in reading, mathematics, and science are associated with later school achievement and adulthood socioeconomic status. This cross-sectional study examined how fundamental domain-general capacities, including language, spatial, and self-regulatory skills, together relate to competencies in reading, mathematics, and science in young Chinese children. A total of 584 Chinese children aged approximately six years were tested individually on their language (receptive vocabulary), spatial (spatial perception, spatial visualization, and mental rotation), and self-regulation (behavioral regulation and working memory) skills, as well as their academic competencies in reading, mathematics, and science. The results showed that vocabulary, spatial, and self-regulatory skills were all associated with Chinese reading, mathematics, and life sciences, whereas only vocabulary was related to earth and physical sciences. The relation between vocabulary and formal mathematics and that between mental rotation and life sciences were found to be stronger in boys than in girls. The findings suggest that foundational domain-general skills may provide the building blocks for children’s academic competencies.     

Anagram solving and reading abilities in children

The relationship between anagram solving and reading aloud proficiency was studied in Italian and French 6th grade children. Whereas a statistically significant relation was found in Italian, the link was not so direct in French. French children's ability in solving anagram problems seemed to benefit from their capacity in recognising written word-forms (lexical decision) and using the direct lexical reading route. Statistical properties concerning lexical entries appeared to be in an intermediate stage of computation. It is thus concluded that anagram solving may highlight some developmental stages and processing strategies in the acquisition and elaboration of written language.     

Motivational beliefs and cognitive processes in mathematics achievement, analyzed in the context of cultural differences: a Korean elementary school example

The relations among students’ motivational beliefs, cognitive processes, and academic achievement were investigated. A 51-item questionnaire together with a mathematics achievement test was administered to 459 fifth graders in Korean elementary school mathematics classrooms. Results indicated that, in general, students’ cognitive processes related closely to competence beliefs, task values, and achievement goals, and more importantly their success or failure in mathematics achievement was closely linked to competence beliefs, performance-avoidance goals, and persistence strategies. Positive evidence of performance-approach goals was observed in math learning relative to task goals. As expected, performance-avoidance goals turned out to be detrimental to students’ math learning. These findings are generally congruent with the motivational theories and support the position that students should be encouraged to adopt task goals and actively involve themselves in math class activities. However, it also behooves us to recognize the potential benefits of performance-approach goals in different cultural contexts, such as the Korean elementary school math classrooms.     

Matthew effects in reading and mathematics: Examining developmental patterns in population data

This study examined whether Matthew effects were evident in developmental patterns of reading and mathematics skills from middle childhood to adolescence. We obtained standardized reading and mathematics scores at Grades 3, 5, 7 and 9 for full cohorts of students in two Australian states, NSW (N = 88,958, 48% female) and Victoria (N = 65,984, 49% female). Latent growth curve models were used to identify the best-fitting longitudinal trajectories of reading and mathematics, and to examine whether cumulative (i.e. a Matthew effect), compensatory, or stable interindividual differences characterized development in each domain. For both reading and mathematics, and in both samples, growth decelerated as grade levels increased, with latent basis models fitting the data better than linear models. Negative intercept-slope covariances, and decreasing variances at increasing grades in both domains indicated compensatory growth patterns, rather than cumulative patterns or Matthew effects. These results indicate that students with below average achievement at Grade 3 make greater gains to Grade 9 than their initially higher-achieving peers. Modeling growth trajectories in two longitudinal population datasets allows strong tests of theorized growth patterns for both reading and mathematics, and presents insights about developmental change in academic skills from middle childhood to adolescence.     

Class size effects on reading achievement in Europe: Evidence from PIRLS

Some researchers have suggested that reducing class size may result in increases in student achievement. However, the empirical evidence about class-size effects from experimental or quasi-experimental studies has been mixed overall. This study sheds more light on whether class size reduction impacts reading achievement in eight European countries: Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. We examine class size effects on reading achievement using national probability samples of fourth graders. All eight European countries had participated in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) in 2001, 2006 and 2011. Overall, the results indicate that class size effects on reading achievement are not significant across countries and years. One exception was Romania where class size effects in 2001 and 2011 were significant and negative suggesting that reducing class size corresponded to increases in reading achievement. Trends in class size effects over time were not observed.     

Meta-analysis on the relation between visuomotor integration and academic achievement: Role of educational stage and disability

Visuomotor integration (VMI) is the ability to coordinate visual perception and motor functioning. Measures of VMI are commonly used to assess children's readiness for academic learning. Attention and investments towards VMI development are mainly focused on early learners, but some empirical research indicates sustained relations between VMI and academic achievement through middle and high school. To determine the relations between VMI and academic achievement, as well as moderating factors, we conducted a multilevel meta-analysis using a total of 96 articles and 266 effect sizes published over the past 60 years. The pooled effect size revealed moderate correlations between VMI and mathematical (r = 0.39) and reading (r = 0.34) achievement. Educational stage, disability, and intelligence were significant moderators of the relation between VMI and mathematics achievement, whereas educational stage and subdomains of reading skills were significant moderators of the relation between VMI and reading achievement. Implications and future research directions are discussed.     

The cognitive levels test: Its relationship with reading and mathematics achievement

Any instrument designed to measure broad cognitive ability is expected to correlate substantially with valid measures of academic achievement. This report describes an investigation designed to evaluate the relationship between the Cognitive Levels Test, a newly available instrument, and two tests of academic achievement that have been widely used for nearly two decades: the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests and the KeyMath Diagnostic Arithmetic Test. The study included children in grades K-2 who were enrolled in a remedial summer school program. The results showed the Cognitive Levels Test (Cognitive Index) to be rather highly correlated with the KeyMath Diagnostic Arithmetic Test Total score (r=.72) and moderately correlated with the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests Total Reading score (r=.55). A repeated measures analysis of variance comparing standard scores for the Cognitive Levels Test with those of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests indicated few mean differences between the two sets of scores. Implications concerning the validity of the Cognitive Levels Test were discussed.     

Linking university mathematics classroom environments to student achievement: The mediation of mathematics beliefs

This study examined the relationships between university mathematics classroom environments, mathematics beliefs, and achievement in the context of mainland China. As a type of affect in mathematics learning, mathematics beliefs including mathematics conceptions and efficacy were examined as mediators. Based on analysis of a sample of 1443 undergraduate students from a university in northern China, the study not only found that the mathematics classroom environment was associated with both affective and cognitive mathematics outcomes, but also confirmed the mediating role of mathematics beliefs. Specifically, a desirable classroom environment was related to students’ cohesive conceptions, enhanced self-efficacy, and higher mathematics achievement. In contrast, students’ perceived difficulty of learning mathematics was connected to their fragmented conceptions, reduced self-efficacy and lower mathematics achievement. Implications of the study are discussed.     

Science Learning: A path analysis of its links with reading comprehension,question-asking in class and science achievement

The purpose of this research was to build and test a conceptual model of the complex interrelationships between students' learning in science (learning approaches and self-regulation), their reading comprehension, question-asking in class and science achievement. These variables were measured by means of a test and a series of questionnaires administered to 604 ninth-grade students, and the data collected were analysed using a correlational, cross-sectional design. Results of a path analysis indicated that (a) students’ self-regulated and intentional knowledge-constructing activity (self-regulated strategy use, deep approach and knowledge-building) were what chiefly accounted for their question-asking in class; (b) question-asking (high and low levels) was related directly to reading comprehension and indirectly, through its contribution to the this, to academic achievement; (c) reading comprehension was directly and negatively associated with surface approach and indirectly and positively related to deep approach and knowledge-building; and (d) some of these variables, particularly reading comprehension, accounted for academic achievement in science. This model explained nearly 30% of the variance in academic achievement and provided a substantial and distinctive insight into the web of interrelationships among these variables. Implications for future research and science teaching and learning are discussed (e.g. the importance of supporting students' efforts to learn science in a meaningful, active and self-regulated way and of improving their reading comprehension).     

Differential genetic etiology of reading disability as a function of mathematics performance

In order to assess the etiology of reading disability as a function of mathematics performance, data from 168 monozygotic (MZ) and 127 same-sex dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs in which at least one member of each pair was reading-disabled were subjected to quantitative genetic analyses. MZ and DZ concordance rates for reading disability were computed for different levels of mathematics performance, and reading performance data were fitted to an extension of the basic multiple regression model for the analysis of selected twin data. Results of these analyses suggest that genetic factors may be especially salient as a cause of reading disability in children with borderline deficits in mathematics performance: thus, mathematics performance may be a valid dimension for diagnosing subtypes of reading disability.     

The effectiveness of educational technology applications for enhancing mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms: A meta-analysis

The present review examines research on the effects of educational technology applications on mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms. Unlike previous reviews, this review applies consistent inclusion standards to focus on studies that met high methodological standards. In addition, methodological and substantive features of the studies are investigated to examine the relationship between educational technology applications and study features. A total of 74 qualified studies were included in our final analysis with a total sample size of 56,886 K-12 students: 45 elementary studies (N = 31,555) and 29 secondary studies (N = 25,331). Consistent with the more recent reviews, the findings suggest that educational technology applications generally produced a positive, though modest, effect (ES = +0.15) in comparison to traditional methods. However, the effects may vary by educational technology type. Among the three types of educational technology applications, supplemental CAI had the largest effect with an effect size of +0.18. The other two interventions, computer-management learning and comprehensive programs, had a much smaller effect size, +0.08 and +0.07, respectively. Differential impacts by various study and methodological features are also discussed.     

Externalizing behavior problems and interest in reading as predictors of later reading skills and educational aspirations

This study examined the developments in children’s externalizing problems and interest in reading during their first four years of school (Grades 1–4) and investigated whether this development predicted the children’s Grade 6 reading skills and educational aspirations. Data comprised (1) teachers’ ratings of externalizing problems and children’s (N = 642; 43% girls) self-ratings of their interest in reading, collected between Grades 1 and 4, and (2) measures of reading fluency and comprehension, and children’s self-reports of educational aspirations, collected at Grade 6. First, latent growth modeling showed that a higher level of externalizing problems in Grade 1 was associated with a lower concurrent interest in reading. Second, a positive association between the initial level of interest in reading and a linear change in externalizing problems indicated that children with a lower interest in reading in Grade 1 were rated by teachers as exhibiting higher levels of externalizing problems, which nonetheless declined over the course of their first four years of school more than among other children. Third, a higher initial level of externalizing problems with a linear change in these problems across Grades 1–4 was a predictor of lower subsequent educational aspirations and poorer reading comprehension in Grade 6. Analysis of the indirect effects indicated that a higher level of externalizing problems was associated with a lower concurrent interest in reading, which, in turn, was related to poorer future reading fluency and lower educational aspirations. The findings imply that problem behaviors are interlinked with academic skill development and motivation across the first six years of school.     

A comparison of sentence-learning errors in children of different achievement levels

Theoretical analyses of the multiple-choice test format suggest that a test constructor should give serious consideration to the form in which correct and incorrect alternatives are presented. In this experiment, third and fourth graders were tested for previously exposed information by multiple-choice items in which: (a) correct alternatives were stated in either verbatim or synonym form; and (b) incorrect alternatives consisted of plausible responses that were either familiar or new. Comparisons of errors and error patterns were made between high and low achieving students who had been given one of two different information-processing strategies. Based on a dual test function argument, it was concluded that synonym correct alternatives combined with plausible new responses are the most desirable of the four multiple-choice variations studied here. In particular, such items were sensitive to achievement level and strategy differences without systematically increasing students' likelihood of retaining misinformation.