Young children's understanding of counting and cardinality

4-year-old's knowledge of counting and cardinality--the last count word reached represents the numerosity of the set--was tested in 2 experiments. Experiment 1 investigated the nature of early cardinality responses by presenting different forms of the cardinality question before, after, and before and after the child counted. Both type and time of question has large effects. Experiment 2 examined whether children of this age could recognize errors in 4 counting procedures and whether they would reject a cardinality response arrived at through a mistaken counting procedure. The children were very good at recognizing a standard counting procedure as correct. They had only limited success at treating procedures that violated the stable order of count words or violated the one-one correspondence between count word and object as incorrect. They lacked an understanding of the order irrelevance in that they judged valid, nonstandard counting orders as incorrect. The children did not seem to link their evaluation of a cardinality response with their evaluation of the counting procedure used to reach that response. The results do not indicate that counting principles initially govern the child's acquisition of counting knowledge. They are consistent with the suggestion that early cardinality responses are last-word responses.     

Teaching experiences of students with special educational needs in co‐taught and non‐co‐taught classes

Co‐teaching has gained considerable interest as a service delivery model for promoting the inclusion of students with special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream classrooms. This study examines whether co‐teaching has an effect on the teaching experiences of 12 students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 10 students with intellectual disability (ID) as compared with the experiences of the same students in non‐co‐taught classes. We implemented 264 structured observations in 22 classes to identify students with SEN grouping arrangements, level of engagement, interactions with teachers and peers, and the nature of the interactions. We also conducted 44 structured interviews with co‐teachers to compound their perceptions with our observations. Observational results indicate that co‐teaching has a strong effect on students' with SEN level of engagement and on the nature of interactions. The grouping arrangements for these students and their interactions with teachers and peers were slightly different between co‐taught and non‐co‐taught classes. More statistically significant differences were identified between the two conditions for students with ASD than for students with ID. Also, co‐teachers reported that co‐teaching had a positive effect on students with SEN in all researched variables. Our study concludes that co‐teaching has some positive effect on the teaching experiences of students with SEN; nevertheless, there is still scope for improving the employment of co‐teaching in Greek mainstream classrooms. Implications of these findings for current practice are discussed.     

Friendship stability among students with and without special educational needs

Previous research has shown that students with special educational needs (SEN) have fewer friendships than their peers without SEN. In this longitudinal study, 545 students from primary and secondary schools, including 106 students with SEN, were surveyed at the beginning and the end of the school year. The results show that students with SEN generally have fewer reciprocal friendships and, proportionally, more often nominate students with SEN than students without SEN. The stability of friendships is lower for students with SEN than for students without SEN. Additionally, for students with SEN, same-SEN-status friendships were as stable as cross-SEN-status friendships, whereas for students without SEN friendships with peers without SEN were more stable than those with peers with SEN.     

Look who's coming to school: the Emirati student voice in an intervention‐based study on inclusion of learners with intellectual disabilities in Emirati mainstream government schools

Although there are many factors that can affect the success of the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream schools, the attitude of typically developing peers towards peers with disabilities is one of the critical factors leading to success. This study examines the effects of a planned intervention on the attitudes of the typically developing peers related to their perceptions about students with intellectual disabilities during a half‐day workshop which took place in each of the target schools and their opinions about including these students in mainstream schools in the United Arab Emirates. The intervention involved both a presentation about the abilities of persons with intellectual disabilities and an opportunity for personal interaction with these students. Following the intervention, the subjects were interviewed and their responses analysed. The results showed that after the intervention, most typically developing students had gained a basic knowledge of intellectual disability which affected their expectations for the abilities of same‐age learners with intellectual disabilities and their acceptance of their inclusion in the mainstream school. Analysis of the responses of the typically developing peers also indicated that the intervention had a positive effect which can lead to a change in attitudes towards possible inclusion of such students in their schools. For future practice and further research, recommendations are made to assist decision makers in this field.     

SUPPORT NEEDS OF CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES: AGE‐RELATED IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT

The Supports Intensity Scale–Children's Version (SIS‐C) was developed to assess the support needs of children and youth aged 5 to 16 years with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Data from the standardization sample of the SIS‐C were analyzed to evaluate the impact of the age cohorts (5–6, 7–8, 9–10, 11–12, 13–14, and 15–16 years) used to stratify the sample on the measurement model, as well as the latent means, standard deviations, and correlations. The findings confirmed measurement invariance across age cohorts, but suggested that at the latent level, younger children, generally, have more intensive support needs and that as students with intellectual disability age, their support needs decrease. In addition, the 15‐ to 16‐year‐old cohort displayed differences in terms of the strength of correlations between support need domains, with stronger correlations than the other age groups. Implications for future research and practice are described.     

Faith schools and pupils' progress through primary education

The impact of faith schools on the performance and progress of their pupils has been studied using data from the National Pupil Database (NPD). The value‐added analysis was carried out using multilevel modelling, controlling for prior attainment as well as a range of background variables, including ethnicity, sex, eligibility for free school meals (FSM), alternative measures of deprivation based on census information, special educational needs (SEN) and English as an additional language (EAL). The analysis confirmed that all faith schools, in particular, Roman Catholic and Church of England schools, made slightly more progress with their pupils than non‐faith schools. It also showed that pupils with SEN attending faith schools performed better at key stage 2 than pupils with SEN in non‐faith schools.     

Counting Skills and Number Concepts of Students with Moderate Intellectual Disabilities

A systematic study was carried out to investigate the basic counting and number skills, and the strategies used in counting and number tasks of students with moderate intellectual disabilities at different age levels. Using Fuson's (1988, 1992) number–word model, students' understanding and use of number words were examined in four situations (sequence, counting, cardinal, and symbol). Thirty students with moderate intellectual disabilities (IQ of 36–54) aged between 7 and 18 years were interviewed individually and their counting skills and concepts of number assessed by various number tasks. Results showed a significant difference between the three age groups on all the number skills assessed. Specifically, the learning pattern for the sequence of number–words and the kinds of correspondence errors made were similar to those of students with normal intelligence; one-to-one correspondence and stable-order principles were used and the cardinal principle was understood. Recommendations were made concerning the education of students with moderate intellectual disabilities in aspects of numeracy.     

Factors related to teachers' attitudes towards the inclusive education of students with severe intellectual disabilities in Riyadh,Saudi

In Saudi Arabia, the majority of students with severe intellectual disabilities are still educated in special schools that do not meet their unique needs for interaction with their typically developing peers in public schools settings where they could improve social, communication and academic skills. One of the most significant obstacles to inclusion of this group of students is teachers' perspectives regarding inclusive education for this category of students. As a result, this study examined teachers' perspectives regarding the inclusion of students with severe intellectual disabilities using a quantitative approach. In addition, this study also examined the relationship between teachers' perspectives regarding the inclusion of students with severe intellectual disabilities and current teaching position, training, teacher's levels of education, previous teaching experience with any kind of disabilities in inclusive settings, grade level being taught, teacher's gender and whether they have a family member with a disability. Three hundred and three teachers responded to the Opinions Relative to inclusion of Students with Disabilities (ORI: Arabic version) survey, including 161 males and 139 females, and three non‐specified gender. A two‐way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), a one‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and an independent t‐test were used to answer the research questions. The findings of the study indicate that teachers have slightly negative perspectives towards the inclusive education of students with severe intellectual disabilities. Significant factors regarding teachers' perspectives towards the inclusion of this group of students included their current teaching position, previous teaching experience with students who had any kind of disability in inclusive settings and the teacher's gender.     

Students negotiating the borders between general and special education classes: an ethnographic and participatory research study

ABSTRACT

Although Finnish basic education is based on inclusion, 37% of students receiving special support still study in either separate schools or separate classes in comprehensive schools. In this study we explore how policies of inclusion are implemented in a school with separated special educational needs (SEN) and general education (GE) classes. More specifically we conducted a two-year ethnographic study focusing particularly on exclusion and the sense of belonging in a lower secondary school (students aged 13–16) in the capital region of Finland. During the fieldwork, several students attending the SEN-class expressed an interest in changing from the SEN-class to a GE-class, or in breaking the borders between SEN and GE classes in other ways. As part of the negotiations with the school, students who criticised the GE- and SEN-class division were offered an opportunity to transfer to GE-classes but in the end, all of them wanted to stay in the SEN-class. In this investigation, we focus on the students’ reasoning and the teachers’ reactions when students negotiate the borders between SEN and GE-classes. In this study we found a clash between integration and inclusive thinking.     

Cohort analysis of writing in Year 7 following two,four and seven years of the National Literacy Strategy

At 11 years of age, English students in secondary schools are expected to make no more than five spelling errors per 100 words and write at a speed of 25 words per minute in order to cope with the curriculum. This research found that at least one third of the Year 7 cohorts (ages 11–12) in three typical suburban secondary schools were unable to meet the spelling criterion and 12% or more were so poor they were in the dyslexic category. Over 95% could not meet the handwriting speed criterion and boys were more than 10% slower than girls. Fluency and speed in writing are essential underpinning skills contributing to spelling accuracy and compositional ability in examination performance. Their role in underachievement across the ability range appears greater than suspected for the difficulties observed so far go far wider than amongst children identified with SEN, such as those with dyslexia and developmental co‐ordination difficulties (DCD), sometimes called dyspraxia. Interventions which teachers in general might undertake are indicated. The research is ongoing.     

A comparison of social skills in Turkish children with visual impairments,children with intellectual impairments and typically developing children

The purpose of this study was to compare the social skills of five groups of children: children with visual impairments attending inclusive education schools, children with visual impairments attending schools for the blind, children with intellectual impairments attending inclusive education schools, children with intellectual impairments attending segregated special education schools, and typically developing children. A hundred and sixty-nine children aged from 7 to 12 participated in the study. The children's social skills were rated by their teachers on the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) – Turkish Form. The results suggested significant group differences between children attending inclusive education schools and children attending special education schools. Analysis of the findings indicated that children with visual impairments and children with intellectual impairments had poorer social skills than typically developing children; however children with visual impairments and children with intellectual impairments attending inclusive education schools had higher social skills than children attending segregated special education schools. The findings of the study were discussed and suggestions for future research were provided.     

A decade of change in mainstream education for children with intellectual disabilities in the Republic of Ireland

Inclusive rather than segregated schooling has been advocated in several significant international declarations during the past two decades. Even so children with significant intellectual disabilities are at greater risk of being excluded from mainstream education, unless particular efforts are made to support them in such settings. These children and young people are more likely to be educated in special schools or in special classes within mainstream schools. In the decade from 2003 to 2013, the Republic of Ireland enacted legislation and provided additional financial resources for pupils with special educational needs, although these were more constrained during the financial crisis that Ireland experienced from 2008 onwards. A national database, updated annually, is maintained of children receiving services from specialist intellectual disability services and this enabled comparisons to be made for the enrolments of over 8000 children aged 4–19 in mainstream and special schools following the introduction of legislation and availability of additional resources. The data showed a steady increase in children with significant intellectual disabilities attending mainstream classes and a decrease in the proportion attending special schools along with a much smaller but decreasing proportion in special classes. The profile of pupils with intellectual disabilities in mainstream and special schools also changed over the 10 years with higher proportions of males, of pupils with moderate disabilities and those of primary age attending mainstream schools, whereas special schools now tend to have higher proportions of females and those of secondary school age. However, there was marked regional variation in the proportions of pupils in mainstream schools which was attributed to the availability of special schools across the State. This study demonstrates how a national data-set can be used to track the impact that policy changes and legislation designed to enhance the development of inclusive learning environments had on the number of pupils availing of mainstream opportunities. It was also possible to identify prevailing trends in types of support provided within schools and the changing pattern of provision for pupils with different levels of intellectual disability. At the broader level of international trends in policy and provision aimed at establishing inclusive learning environments, this study demonstrates the need for a common frame of reference around which the national and international conversations on educational systems can take place.     

Mastery of the counting principles in toddlers: A crucial step in the development of budding arithmetic abilities?

Counting abilities have been described as determinative precursors for a good development of later arithmetic abilities. Mastery of the stable order, the one–one-correspondence and the cardinality principles can be seen as essential features for the development of counting abilities. Mastery of the counting principles in kindergarten was assessed in a large group of children with a broad range of arithmetic abilities (N = 423). Not all children mastered the counting principles by the end of kindergarten. Mastery of the counting principles in kindergarten was predictive for arithmetic abilities one year later in first grade, especially for scores on arithmetic achievement tests. Children sharing a common educational background tend to have more similar scores on arithmetic tests, yet the importance of mastery of the essential counting principles in the prediction of later arithmetic achievement was the same for all classrooms.     

Trends in the Educational Placement of Students with Disabilities in New South Wales

This paper reports the results of an analysis of trends in the placement of students with intellectual, physical, sensory, or behavioural disabilities in New South Wales for the period 1986 to 1994. Although there was a general trend of movement of students from special schools to support classes, there were some major differences across disability groups. The results are discussed in relation to current special education policy in New South Wales and the philosophy of including students with a disability in regular schools and classes.     

GCE performance of FE and sixth‐form college students

This study set out to examine and identify differences in GCE O/A‐level performance of a sample of further education and sixth‐form college students, employing selected biographical, intellectual and dispositional measures. The sample comprised 356 two‐year, full‐time students who entered further education and sixth‐form colleges immediately after completing their fifth‐form work in schools. The results show that taking account of students’ dispositional characteristics significantly increases the explained variation in attainment beyond that accounted for by intellectual ability and previous examination performance. Also indicated are significant differences in the factors associated with examination success; these are shown to be related to students who attend different types of institution. The findings would appear to have implications for current policies concerned with the educational provision for students in the 16‐19 age range.     

Self-Concept of Young People with Physical Disabilities: Does integration play a role?

Different countries have approached the education of students with a disability in different ways. Some have advocated for maximum integration, while others have maintained separate schools for those with special needs. The impact of the different educational settings on the self-concept of young people with a physical disability so far has received very little empirical attention. This study compared four groups of students with a physical disability who differed in their level of school integration: (a) US integrated students ( n = 53), (b) Czech integrated students ( n = 14), (c) Czech students educated at special schools on a daily basis ( n = 51), and (d) Czech students attending special schools on a residential basis ( n = 66). In addition, these young people with a disability were compared to a normative sample of Czech students without a disability. The comparisons were made on self-reported self-perceptions, aggression/emotional instability, view of the world, and dependency using the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Rohner, 1991). Significant between group differences favouring integration were found. More integrated students reported lower levels of aggression, more positive views of themselves, and more positive views of the world. Discussion addressed implications for educational policies for children with special needs.     

Sources of stress for Greek students with intellectual disabilities attending mainstream schools

Students with intellectual disabilities often experience school‐related stress. As a result, they are confronted with many difficulties in their daily school life. The goal of this study was to assess situations of school life that students attending Greek mainstream settings are likely to experience as stressful. Twenty students with mild intellectual disabilities were interviewed about their feelings and thoughts regarding possible stressful situations in school. Qualitative analysis of the interviews' data was conducted. As a result, five main sources of school‐related stress were mentioned: school achievement and classroom participation; peer interactions; student behaviour and risk of injury; parents' expectations; and teacher acceptance. The findings suggest that children with intellectual disabilities experience school‐related stress mainly to a normal degree. Concerning the stress factors that emerged as crucial, a basic conclusion can be drawn: mainstream schools should be changed into inclusive communities where student differences are fully respected, and wherein all children, with and without disabilities, are supported according to their individual abilities, potentials and needs.     

Disproportionality in special education: identifying children with emotional behavioural difficulties in Irish primary schools

Within categories of special educational needs, emotional and behavioural difficulties have received much attention in recent years, particularly in relation to their definition and identification by parents and teachers. This paper stems from previous research which highlights how children from disadvantaged backgrounds and those attending schools designated as socio-economically disadvantaged are significantly more likely than their peers to be identified as having a special educational need of a non-normative type such as emotional behavioural difficulty (EBD). Using data from the Growing Up in Ireland study, it examines whether the EBD identified by teachers or within certain schools is matched by the child’s own performance on an internationally validated emotional and mental health measure – the Piers–Harris. Findings show that overall self-reported social emotional well-being bears a strong relationship to the probability of being identified with an EBD. However, boys, children from economically inactive and one-parent households and children attending the most disadvantaged school contexts are more likely to be identified with having an EBD, even after taking into account their social background characteristics and their scoring on the Piers–Harris measure. These findings suggest that the subjective nature of EBD identification is resulting in a disproportionate number of these children being identified with EBD. The implications of this study are explored for existing disability/SEN classification systems, school-wide intervention models and the impact on individual students labelled as EBD. Overall, the findings pose searching questions about the validity of employing SEN classification systems in deciding eligibility and types of appropriate provision.     

School ethnic composition and aspirations of immigrant students in Belgium

This article examines the association between school ethnic composition and immigrant students’ intentions to finish high school and to move on to higher education. We used data from 1324 immigrant and 10,546 native students gathered in the school year 2004–2005 in a sample of 85 Flemish (Belgian) secondary schools. Logistic multilevel analyses (HLM6) show that students attending schools with a majority of native students (enrolling less than 20% immigrant students) were twice as likely to plan to finish high school and to plan for higher education than those attending high concentration schools (more than 50% immigrant students). These associations were due to students’ socio‐economic status (SES) and there was no difference in aspirations between high and low concentration schools after controlling for students’ SES and the SES context of the school. All else being equal, immigrant students in high concentration schools tended to aspire to finish high school and move on to higher education slightly more than those attending medium concentration schools (20–50% immigrant students). The analyses further show that these differences between high and medium concentration schools can be explained by the more optimistic culture in high concentration schools. The main conclusion is that high concentration schools are not necessarily detrimental for students’ educational aspirations.     

Self‐awareness in Young Adults with Down Syndrome: I. Awareness of Down syndrome and disability

The limited literature on awareness of differences and stigma in people with intellectual disabilities is largely sociological, emphasises pathology, and has rarely used a developmental perspective with representative samples. Interviews, photographs and standardised tests were used to investigate such awareness with 77 young adults with Down syndrome and their parents. Awareness and social categorisation were significantly associated with verbal mental age, and closely approximated the typical social‐cognitive developmental sequence. No associations were found between awareness and chronological age, parent telling, gender, and mainstream experience. Only those with verbal mental ages from around 8 years were making relative social comparisons and beginning to form complex social categories of Down syndrome/disability. Around 13% were rated as showing a negative emotional reaction to Down syndrome/disability, and most of these were male. A similar percentage, mostly female and with higher verbal mental ages, discussed concerns and limitations. Even so, they all had high self‐esteem and awareness of Down syndrome and disability did not appear to be a major issue. A number of coping mechanisms to maintain a positive sense of self were suggested. It is argued that both sociological and developmental models are required to inform parent and professional attempts to facilitate self‐awareness.