A Matter of Design: A Proposal to Encourage the Evolution of Design in Instructional Design

Kerr wrote of the black box of design decisions—that time when the “heart of an instructional solution first appears.” Petroski writes of judgment as indispensable for engineering design decisions. Both instructional design and engineering are design sciences, yet engineering has a rich tradition of discussing and reflecting upon design decisions. Engineering shares a language by which they can discuss the decisions that underlay designs and, so may learn from failures and allow their practice to evolve. This paper suggests means by which instructional design may begin to develop a language of design. Design is depicted as a process involving three spheres. Sphere One—skills, Sphere Two—practice, and Sphere Three—application. By developing a language to discuss and reflect upon Sphere Two processes, practitioners may share their practice, learn from each other, and encourage the field to evolve so that we may meet the changing needs of a knowledge economy. Herein, a proposal to encourage the development and use of a language to discuss Sphere Two decisions is detailed and initial steps are explored.     

Faculty socialization and instructional productivity

Difficult financial times appear to lie ahead for higher education, and efforts to increase instructional productivity may be required. What kinds of efforts will faculty members support or at least condone? The answer would appear to lie in awareness of the process of faculty socialization. It is argued that through the collegiate experience, the future college professor is socialized to a conventional teaching role, which is grounded firmly in a traditional instructional model, and that efforts to increase instructional productivity must be cognizant of and consistent with this role and model. Empirical data from faculty in eight Pennsylvania colleges supported the hypothesis—with one important refinement: adjustments must be made for the implications of enlightened faculty self-interest.     

A Problem‐based Learning Model for Teaching the Instructional Design Business Acquisition Process

There is a growing emphasis on utilizing a problem‐based learning [PBL] pedagogy to help instructional design students gain an understanding of the complex forces operating within an actual design environment. However, little literature exists to suggest that PBL is being used to teach the process by which instructional design firms and practitioners secure work—the Instructional Design Business Acquisition Process (IDBAP). This study outlines a conceptual framework for using an adapted problem‐based learning model for teaching the IDBAP, which consists of writing a response to a request for proposal (RFP), developing a working prototype, and orally presenting the solution. This study also examines the impact of a PBL pedagogy on students' perception of their confidence in solving instructional design problems. The results of this empirical research indicate that students who participate in a problem‐based learning pedagogy gain confidence in their abilities to solve instructional design problems, view themselves in emotional control when solving an instructional design problem, and are more inclined to approach similar problems in the future.     

Training higher education teachers for instructional design of competency-based education: Product-oriented versus process-oriented worked examples

Teachers involved in the development of competency-based higher education (CBE) are expected to fulfil a new role of instructional designer. As a consequence, they are confronted with the problem to translate abstract new curriculum principles into concrete learning tasks. Recent studies have shown that teachers can be trained to apply an instructional systems design methodology. After this training the teachers were able to design better learning tasks for CBE in comparison with their experienced-based design efforts. In order to optimize the training, this study compares an experimental condition with process-oriented worked examples with a conventional training condition with emphasis on product-oriented worked examples. After the training, the participants—25 higher education teachers—had to apply the ISD methodology to two design problems. The quality of the resulting design materials, as rated by experts, was higher in the product-oriented worked examples condition than in the process-oriented worked examples condition. The significance of this finding for training approaches to design methodology for CBE is discussed.     

Developing Personalized Education: A Dynamic Framework

Personalized education—the systematic adaptation of instruction to individual learners—has been a long-striven goal. We review research on personalized education that has been conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, and in digital learning environments. Across all learning environments, we find that personalization is most successful when relevant learner characteristics are measured repeatedly during the learning process and when these data are used to adapt instruction in a systematic way. Building on these observations, we propose a novel, dynamic framework of personalization that conceptualizes learners as dynamic entities that change during and in interaction with the instructional process. As these dynamics manifest on different timescales, so do the opportunities for instructional adaptations—ranging from setting appropriate learning goals at the macroscale to reacting to affective-motivational fluctuations at the microscale. We argue that instructional design needs to take these dynamics into account in order to adapt to a specific learner at a specific point in time. Finally, we provide some examples of successful, dynamic adaptations and discuss future directions that arise from a dynamic conceptualization of personalization.

     

Instructional design for advanced learners: Establishing connections between the theoretical frameworks of cognitive load and deliberate practice

Cognitive load theory (CLT) has been successful in identifying instructional formats that are more effective and efficient than conventional problem solving in the initial, novice phase of skill acquisition. However, recent findings regarding the “expertise reversal effect” have begun to stimulate cognitive load theorists to broaden their horizon to the question of how instructional design should be altered as a learner's knowledge increases. To answer this question, it is important to understand how expertise is acquired and what fosters its development. Expert performance research, and, in particular, the theoretical framework of deliberate practice have given us a better understanding of the principles and activities that are essential in order to excel in a domain. This article explores how these activities and principles can be used to design instructional formats based on CLT for higher levels of skills mastery. The value of these formats for e-learning environments in which learning tasks can be adaptively selected on the basis of online assessments of the learner's level of expertise is discussed. In their preparation of this article, the first and last authors were supported by an Internationalization grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, The Hague, project number 411-01-010).     

国际教学设计领域在关注什么——《教学设计中课程、规划和进程的国际观》深度解读

针对教学研究领域的三个主题：教学设计、课程设计、信息通信技术与媒体,国际教学设计研究领域的学者们主要关注如下研究热点：认知和学习心理学研究成果为教学设计模型提供了新的理论基础和创新途径,课程开发和信息通信技术需要进一步整合到教学设计模型中;课程开发及其对教学设计模型的影响;信息通信技术对教学设计和课程开发的影响,从更加整合和全面的视角来看待学习、教学、课程和技术之间的关系。《教学设计中课程、规划和进程的国际观》从以上三个方面展示了国际观点。当前教学设计研究和实践逐步形成以下发展趋势：一是教学设计研究越来越呈现出跨学科特点;二是运用技术创建有效学习环境成为教学设计研究的重要领域;三是欧美学者在教学设计研究领域既共享众多核心观点,又在研究角度、内容上各有不同,使得整体研究成果深度交融。     

Using Digital Technologies to Automate Instructional Design

Abstract

Recent advances in computer‐based interactive digital technologies have presented a broad range of possibilities to create powerful presentations and instructional messages. However, incorporating these new technologies effectively is not a simple task because the design of effective computer‐based instructional material is a complex process. Successful design involves interactions between individual learner characteristics, instructional delivery media, the type of specific knowledge and skills being taught, and the strategies and methods used to teach the material.

This paper discusses:

• — The need for an Automated Instructional Design

• — The integration of learning theory, instructional design and technology

• — Some approaches for automating instructional design

• — An exploration of ID Expert, ? an intelligent computer‐based multimedia instructional development system (beta version 1.0).

     

The instructional designer as a staff developer: A course team approach consistent with the Concerns‐Based Adoption Model

This paper draws upon contingency theory to support a flexible eclectic approach to staff development in distance education. The approach utilizes the Concerns‐Based Adoption Model focussed towards developing instructional design skills in academic staff. Strategies are described for lecturers in each of the seven stages of concern. For the staff development procedures to be effective, it is argued that study materials development should take place within an infrastructure which involves the writer(s) and an instructional designer in a team. Perhaps, the main message of the paper is merely that flexible eclecticism is a desirable approach to staff development — and contingency theory offers that concept — and staff developers need to be mindful of differing staff attitudes — some of which are identified by CBAM.     

Enhancing instructional design efficiency: Methodologies employed by instructional designers

Instructional systems design (ISD) has been frequently criticised as taking too long to implement, calling for a reduction in cycle time—the time that elapses between project initiation and delivery. While instructional design research has historically focused on increasing learner efficiencies, the study of what instructional designers do to increase efficiency during the design of instruction, including web‐based training, has not yet been fully examined. The purpose of this qualitative developmental study was to identify and understand the methodologies used by experienced instructional designers to increase the efficiency of the instructional design process. Data were gathered from 11 instructional designers working within two business and industry consulting firms that provide learning solutions to global clients. Results revealed 47 efficiency methodologies found within the four categories of design model, instructional design team member roles, instructional design processes and instructional design tools. Additionally, 14 supporting instructional designer competencies were found within the category of instructional designer knowledge, skills and attitudes.     

Networks of law encoding diagrams for understanding science

Understanding science involves the mastery of complex networks of concepts. To design effective computer based systems for learning science it is essential to adequately characterize the nature of those conceptual networks, so that clear and appropriate instructional goals can be defined and fed into the design process. This paper considers a novel class of representations for science instruction — Law Encoding Diagrams (LEDs) — and describes the nature of scientific understanding based on these representations. A framework of four classes of schemas has been proposed to characterizes problem solving and learning with LEDs. How the framework encompasses complex networks of concepts is discussed and the implications for the design of computer based learning environments based on LEDs are considered.     

Towards an idea-centered,principle-based design approach to support learning as knowledge creation

While the importance of viewing learning as knowledge creation is gradually recognized (Paavola et al. Computer-supported collaborative learning: foundations for a CSCL community 2002; Rev Educ Res 74:557–576 2004), an important question remains to be answered—what represents an effective instructional design to support collaborative creative learning? This paper argues for the need to move away from efficiency-oriented instructional design to innovation-oriented instructional design if learning as knowledge creation is to be pursued as an important instructional goal. The rationale in support of this argument is discussed from four different theoretical perspectives and an idea-centered, principle-based design approach as an example is proposed for discussion.     

How does rocket propulsion work?

The most common answer to the above question is — hot jet of gas comes out of the nozzle of the rocket engine at high speeds and as a reaction the rocket moves (is propelled) in the opposite direction [1]. But is this answer right? Let us explore what goes on inside a rocket engine and arrive at the right answer.     

应用非线性控制技术进行课堂教学设计

教学活动是最复杂的人类活动之一,现行的课堂教学设计显示了强烈的线性特征,教学双向交互也呈现出“输入——输出”的必然因果关系。然而,教学结果却往往达不到预期的目标,也无益于培养学生的创造思维。本文试图引用非线性控制理论解决教学中的“输入”和“输出”的不确定性问题。     

基于WEB的计算机辅助教学设计工具的设计与实现

从教学设计的实用性出发,先综述了教学设计、教学设计自动化、教学设计辅助工具等相关的研究发展情况,指出目前教学设计辅助工具应用领域的空白,然后针对高校工科专业的教学基础课程,运用相关的教学设计理论知识和数据库技术设计与实现了一套教学设计辅助工具,本软件工具依据课堂教学设计的过程中的步骤一步一步的引导教师进行教学设计,目标就是使课堂教学效果最优化。     

School Reform and Restructuring: Does Performance Technology Have a Role?

There is now widespread agreement that America's schools are in serious trouble. However, there is little consensus regarding what should be done about it. The school reforms currently being suggested are the most radical since the elimination of the one room school. School reforms of the 1980s—personnel selection, job redesign, evaluation/ feedback, incentives, instructional technology, and organization rede-sign—are reviewed from a performance technology perspectivee Reasons for their lack of success are discussed, in particular the schools' lack of interest in instructional design and technology. The most likely future reforms, those that involve the organizational redesign of schools, are discussed along with the impact such changes would have on the potential for applying performance technology in the schools. The paper concludes with actions that performance technologists in both business and academic environments can take to encourage the application of their technologies in the schools.     

Software Engineering Design Principles Applied to Instructional Design: What can we Learn from our Sister Discipline?

The failure of many instructional design initiatives is often attributed to poor instructional design. Current instructional design models do not provide much insight into design processes for creating e-learning instructional solutions. Given the similarities between the fields of instructional design and software engineering, instructional designers could employ the ideas and techniques employed in software engineering to improve their design solutions. Software engineering development and project management methodologies can be employed to develop effective e-learning solutions. Furthermore, software engineering design principles used to develop high-quality software can be applied to planning and enhancing instruction. Fundamental software design concepts, such as abstraction, modularity, reusability, compatibility, extensibility, scalability, and maintainability are all important factors that can potentially lead to the development of high quality instructional solutions. This paper explores the possibility to integrate software engineering design principles into instructional design for e-learning solutions, which not only augment the generic instructional design approach with the best practices from the field of software engineering, but also make the development process more productive and efficient. Finally, this paper illustrates how all of the software engineering design principles are interrelated and can be realized in practice to enhance the quality of instruction.     

If we can't contextualize it,should we teach it?

Constructivists often present their ideas as the solution to most ills in education. Sometimes explicitly, but often implicitly, instructional systems design (ISD) is blamed for these ills. There is some irony to this as ISD advocates often lament the dearth of ISD in education. Be that as it may, ISD does have limitations and there is much to be learned from constructivism. However, is a paradigm switch the answer? This paper will take a different approach as it will indicate how ISD can help those who want to develop constructivist instruction. The ISD procedures involved in task/learning analyses and formative evaluation are presented as particularly beneficial.     

Framing for scientific argumentation

In recent years, research on students' scientific argumentation has progressed to a recognition of nascent resources: Students can and do argue when they experience the need and possibility of persuading others who may hold competing views. Our purpose in this article is to contribute to this progress by applying the perspective of framing to the question of when and how a class forms and maintains a sense of their activity as argumentative. In particular, we examine three snippets from a sixth‐grade class with respect to how the students—and the teacher—experience, or frame, what is taking place. We argue that they show dynamics of framing for individuals and for the class as a whole that affect and are affected by students' engagement in argumentation. We close the article with implications of this perspective for research, teaching, and instructional design. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 68–94, 2012     

Getting immersed in teacher and student perspectives? Facilitating analytical competence using video cases in teacher education

The ability to analyze and understand classroom situations through the eyes of not only teachers but also students can be seen as a crucial aspect of teachers’ professional competence. Even though video case-based learning is considered to have great potential for the promotion of analytical competence of teachers (i.e., becoming immersed in student and teacher perspectives as well as applying conceptual knowledge to better understand classroom situations), only a few studies have investigated the effects of corresponding instructional support. This empirical field study examines the effects on analytical competence of two types of instructional support—hyperlinks to multiple perspectives and hyperlinks to conceptual knowledge—by using a 2 × 2 factorial design in a computer-supported video case-based learning environment inspired by cognitive flexibility theory and participatory design. The study examines collaborative learning processes to discover what specific kind of instruction may help to counteract some of the known deficits of case-based learning and teacher thinking, such as limited perspective-taking. From a participatory design point of view, training novices to become immersed in teacher and student perspectives can be considered as an alternative for direct involvement of teachers and students in the design process. The study was realized as a four-day university course for pre-service teachers (N = 100). ANCOVAs of learning processes (small-group discussions) and outcomes (written case analyses) provide evidence that both types of instructional support (i.e., hyperlinks to multiple perspectives and conceptual knowledge) are beneficial. In particular, hyperlinks to multiple perspectives affected small-group case discussions and written post-tests as they led to increased immersion (i.e., perspective-taking). Hyperlinks to conceptual knowledge furthered the application of this knowledge, especially in the written post-tests. Implications for teacher education, participatory design, and further research are discussed.