Individual Differences in Achievement Goals among Young Children

Smiley, Patricia A., and Dweck, Carol S. Individual Differences in Achievement Goals among Young Children . Child Development, 1994 65 , 1723–1743. Developmental research has generally not found evidence of helpless responses to failure in young children; a prevailing view is that young children lack the cognitive prerequisite for helplessness. However, recent evidence suggests that even preschoolers are vulnerable to helplessness in some situations. In the present study with 4- and 5-year-olds, we tested a goal-confidence model that predicts achievement behavior during failure for older children. We first categorized preschoolers' orientations toward "learning" or "performance" goals based on their preference for a challenging or nonchallenging task. As for older children, goal orientation was independent of ability and predicted cognitions and emotions during failure. Further, consistent with the model, within a learning goal, children displayed the mastery-oriented pattern regardless of confidence level, whereas within a performance goal, children with low confidence were most susceptible to helplessness. These behavior patterns were found on a second task as well. Thus, our findings show that individual differences in achievement goals emerge very early.     

Individual Differences in Theory of Mind, Aggressive Behavior, and Social Skills In Young Children

Research Findings. The present study examined relations between social-cognitive skills, aggression, and social competence using teacher questionnaires and tabletop tasks with preschool and kindergarten children. It was hypothesized that the acquisition of a theory of “mind”, as indexed by an understanding of false beliefs, might be related to social behavior for this age group. Overall, results indicated that both generation of forceful solutions in a traditional social-problem solving task and performance on the false belief tasks were significantly related to social competence, after controlling for the effects of age, language comprehension, and teacher ratings of aggression. In addition, theory of mind understanding was a better predictor of social competence than performance on a more traditional social information-processing task that involved the generation of alternative solutions to interpersonal problems. Practice. The implications of these findings for preschool and kindergarten peer relations and their potential relevance to treatment of deficits in social skills are discussed. Specifically, training in an understanding of counterfactual thinking (e.g., through increased and structured opportunities to engage in pretend play and storytelling) may enhance preschooler social skills.     

Individual Differences in Theory of Mind,Aggressive Behavior,and Social Skills In Young Children

Research Findings. The present study examined relations between social-cognitive skills, aggression, and social competence using teacher questionnaires and tabletop tasks with preschool and kindergarten children. It was hypothesized that the acquisition of a theory of "mind," as indexed by an understanding of false beliefs, might be related to social behavior for this age group. Overall, results indicated that both generation of forceful solutions in a traditional social-problem solving task and performance on the false belief tasks were significantly related to social competence, after controlling for the effects of age, language comprehension, and teacher ratings of aggression. In addition, theory of mind understanding was a better predictor of social competence than performance on a more traditional social information-processing task that involved the generation of alternative solutions to interpersonal problems. Practice. The implications of these findings for preschool and kindergarten peer relations and their potential relevance to treatment of deficits in social skills are discussed. Specifically, training in an understanding of counterfactual thinking (e.g., through increased and structured opportunities to engage in pretend play and storytelling) may enhance preschooler social skills.     

蒙台梭利日常生活技能教育对幼儿生活技能教育的启示

蒙台梭利日常生活教育对幼儿生活技能教育改革具有借鉴意义。为了更好地借鉴蒙台梭利日常生活教育的相关理论,必须了解幼儿生活技能的定义和种类。在具体的幼儿生活技能教育实施过程中,首先要在理论层面上促进蒙台梭利生活教育理论的本土化;其次要充分利用蒙台梭利教具对幼儿进行生活技能教育;第三,要对幼儿教育师资进行蒙台梭利生活技能教育理论的培养和培训。     

Differences in the Mathematics‐Vocabulary Knowledge of Fifth‐Grade Students With and Without Learning Difficulties

The purpose of this pilot study was to explore the impact of mathematics and reading learning difficulties on the mathematics‐vocabulary understanding of fifth‐grade students. Students (n = 114) completed three measures: mathematics computation, general vocabulary, and mathematics vocabulary. Based on performance on the mathematics computation and general vocabulary measures, students were categorized with no learning difficulty (i.e., typical), mathematics difficulty without reading difficulty (MD‐only), reading difficulty without mathematics difficulty (RD‐only), and combined mathematics and reading difficulties (MDRD). On the mathematics‐vocabulary measure, students with MD‐only or RD‐only scored significantly lower than typical students, and students with MDRD demonstrated significantly lower performance than students with MD‐only or RD‐only.     

The Development of Message Evaluation Skills in Young Children

The goal of this research was to learn if young children overestimate message quality because they evaluate their knowledge or assumptions about the intended meaning of the message, rather than its literal meaning. 2 experiments were conducted with preschoolers (4 years) and kindergartners (5-6 years). Second graders (8 years) also participated in the first experiment. Children evaluated the communicative quality of informative, ambiguous, and ineffective picture messages in a simple communication game. In the first experiment, children knew the intended referent when they evaluated the message. The results showed that younger children overestimated the informativeness of the ambiguous and ineffective messages, while older children evaluated message quality accurately, even though they knew the intended meaning. In the second experiment, younger children detected more of the message ambiguities when they did not know the target referent than when they were informed of the intended interpretation. The results suggest that young children overestimate message quality because they evaluate their interpretation of the message rather than its literal meaning.     

The Effect of Executive Function on Biological Reasoning in Young Children: An Individual Differences Study

There is substantial variance in the age at which children construct and deploy their first explicit theory of biology. This study tests the hypothesis that this variance is due, at least in part, to individual differences in their executive function (EF) abilities. A group of 79 boys and girls aged 5–7 years (with a mean age of 6½ years) were presented with two test batteries: (a) a biology battery that probed their understanding of life, death, and body functions and (b) an EF battery that tested working memory, inhibition, and set‐shifting skills. Individuals' EF scores significantly predict their biology scores, even after controlling for age and verbal IQ.     

紫禁城午后的一缕阳光——从留美幼童的传奇看中国留学教育的起步

幼童赴美留学是中国近代史上一件“千古未有之奇事”。从留学开始到被迫终止,十年间,120名学生在异国他乡创造了许多奇迹。他们从一群稚嫩的孩童成长为一批优秀的青年,这其中付出了许多艰辛。两种不同文化和制度的碰撞,使他们幼小的心灵受到了极大的震撼。留美幼童的故事也包含于中国留学教育的历史中,直到今天,仍然值得回味和研究。     

Curriculum Analysis of Food Safety Competences at Elementary and Upper‐Secondary Level of Formal Education Inside Food‐Related Programs in Slovenia

Since formal education is guided through food‐related curricula, there is a concern regarding to which extent food safety elements are supported in the current educational objectives presented in syllabi. The aim of this study was to analyze the existing food safety elements in the syllabi at the elementary (for students between 6 and 14 y of age) and upper‐secondary level (food‐related programs) of formal education (for students between 15 and 18 y of age). Analysis was done through predefined criteria, evaluating the educational objectives listed in available syllabi approved by the national government. The results revealed the elementary level as a good prestage for education at the next level concerning food safety elements. At the upper‐secondary level, the acquisition of knowledge and development of skills related to food safety elements of interest are well supported. However, based on frequent errors made by professional food handlers reported in the literature, the role of food handlers and their food safety awareness should receive more attention in the syllabi. To support this and to overcome a lack of educational objectives identified, several actions are suggested. Based on methodological recommendations for the teacher in the syllabi, the importance of qualified teachers was once again confirmed. Vocational schools are and will remain an indispensable pillar in the education of future professional food handlers; however, teachers with sufficient knowledge and a positive attitude toward food safety seems to be, besides quality curricula, one of the important factors in achieving the proper attitudes of people required to implement food safety.     

Helping,Sharing, and Comforting in Young Children: Links to Individual Differences in Attachment

Although attachment theory has long posited a link between early experiences of care and children's prosocial behavior, investigations of this association have not embraced the multifaceted nature of prosociality. This study is the first to assess associations between child attachment and independent observations of helping, sharing, and comforting. Attachment quality in 3- to 5-year-old children (N = 137) was linked to all three prosocial behaviors. Additionally, bifactor analyses revealed distinct associations between attachment and children's general prosocial dispositions and their specific abilities to meet the unique challenges of helping and, marginally, comforting. These findings underscore the importance of considering multiple explanations for links between attachment and prosocial behavior and provide novel insights into sources of variation in children's prosociality.     

Consequences of Individual Differences in Children's Formal Understanding of Mathematical Equivalence

Experts claim that individual differences in children's formal understanding of mathematical equivalence have consequences for mathematics achievement; however, evidence is lacking. A prospective, longitudinal study was conducted with a diverse sample of 112 children from a midsized city in the Midwestern United States (M_age [second grade] = 8:1). As hypothesized, understanding of mathematical equivalence in second grade predicted mathematics achievement in third grade, even after controlling for second-grade mathematics achievement, IQ, gender, and socioeconomic status. Most children exhibited poor understanding of mathematical equivalence, but results provide clues about which children are on the path to constructing an understanding and which may need extra support to overcome their misconceptions. Findings suggest that mathematical equivalence may deserve more attention from educators.     

Distinct Age‐Related Differences in Temporal Discounting and Risk Taking in Adolescents and Young Adults

Age‐related differences in temporal discounting (TD) and risk taking, and their association, were examined in adolescents and young adults (n = 337) aged 12–27 years. Since monetary rewards are typically used in TD and risk‐taking tasks, the association between monetary reward valuation and age and decision making in these tasks was explored as well. TD declined linearly with age, with a particularly sharp decline from 15 to 16 years. In contrast, risk taking was not correlated with age and TD. Reward valuation was not associated with TD and risk taking, and age‐related differences in TD remained significant after controlling for reward valuation. Together, these findings suggest that risk taking and TD are two separate constructs with distinct age‐related differences in adolescence and young adulthood.     

加强青年教师教学基本功的途径

青年教师目前是高等院校教学的主力军,加强其教学基本功是提高高校综合教学水平和教学质量的关键。本文笔者结合自身教学和多次参加青年教师教学比赛的经验和体会,从教学基本功具体内容论述了加强青年教师教学基本功的重要性,并从四个方面阐述了加强青年教师教学基本功的途径(建立有效和长效的激励机制;以点带面,以比赛促提高;系统培训,模范引领;勇于创新,开拓进取)。     

The Effects of Video Self‐Modeling on the Decoding Skills of Children at Risk for Reading Disabilities

Ten first grade students who had responded poorly to a Tier 2 reading intervention in a response to intervention (RTI) model received an intervention of video self‐modeling to improve decoding skills and sight word recognition. Students were video recorded blending and segmenting decodable words and reading sight words. Videos were edited and viewed a minimum of four times per week. Data were collected twice per week using curriculum‐based measures. A single subject multiple baseline across participants design was used. Results indicated an increase in decoding skills and sight word recognition for all participants. A 2‐week posttest maintenance assessment showed retention or increases for 70 percent of participants. Results from the study offer promise for a specific intervention that may reach particular students who respond poorly to Tier 2 reading instruction.     

Stability of Maternal Socioemotional Investment in Young Children

Objective. To investigate the stability of 3 constructs (Sensitivity, Delight, and Acceptance of the Parenting Role) of mothers' socioemotional investment in the young child from 15 months and 36 months postpartum. Design. A sample of 102 mothers participated. Factor structure stability, rank-order stability, and mean-level stability were investigated by confirmatory factor analysis, correlational analysis, and paired t tests, respectively. Results. All 3 domains of maternal investment showed reasonable stability. Each maternal investment measure showed at least a basic test of factorial stability. Both Sensitivity and Delight passed stringent tests of factorial stability, and Acceptance of the Parenting Role contained one item that was less valid at 36 months. There were no mean-level differences across time, and all rank-order stability coefficients were above. 50. Conclusions. The stability observed in maternal socioemotional investment, together with findings showing stability in related aspects of parental beliefs and attitudes, suggests that it may be neither simple nor easy to effect change in parents' attitudes and feelings regarding the child.     

Visual Attention to Global and Local Stimulus Properties in 6‐Month‐Old Infants: Individual Differences and Event‐Related Potentials

Event‐related potentials (ERPs) were utilized in an investigation of 21 six‐month‐olds’ attention to and processing of global and local properties of hierarchical patterns. Overall, infants demonstrated an advantage for processing the overall configuration (i.e., global properties) of local features of hierarchical patterns; however, processing advantages were found to vary based on individual differences in look duration. Short‐looking infants showed differences in the negative central ERP component and the late slow wave (LSW) indicating greater attention to and discrimination of changes in global properties. Analysis of the LSW revealed that long‐looking infants discriminated changes in local features, but did not discriminate changes in global properties of visual stimuli. These findings indicate that short‐ and long‐looking infants utilize different approaches when processing hierarchical patterns.     

The Development of Everyday Mathematics in Brazilian Children with Limited Formal Education

The sociocultural context in which children acquire and use everyday mathematics was studied in Brazilian shantytown communities. Children's developing mathematical abilities and use of currency in solving commercial problems were investigated. Interviews with the parents of 105 children from 4 to 14 years of age indicated that, when sent to make purchases at local stands, the problems entailed in the responsibilities parents assigned to children involved greater arithmetical complexity with increasing age. Children's accuracy and strategy use on arithmetic tasks similar to the problems encountered in commercial transactions revealed: ( a ) many children used currency to aid their problem solving; ( b ) with increasing age, currency use declined; and ( c ) children's currency use progressed from global estimates to the mental decomposition and manipulation of currency values. The mathematical complexity of children's commercial transactions correlated significantly with their mathematics performance even when age, grade in school, and years of schooling were statistically controlled The results provide evidence that by adjusting the mathematical complexity of children's commercial transactions, parents facilitate connections between children's developing competence and their everyday activities.     

论幼儿科学教育与艺术教育的整合

对幼儿的科学教育与艺术教育加以整合,可以使幼儿园课程符合幼儿"整体性"的学习特点。文章从目标、内容、实施、评价四个方面对如何整合幼儿科学教育与艺术教育进行了思考和探讨。在目标方面,以"探究""审美""创造"为"科艺整合课程"的总目标;在内容方面,"学科知识渗透"和"主题活动融合"为有效的课程内容整合路径;在实施方面,建议教师采用"科艺综合活动"的形式来呈现整合课程的新内容;在评价方面,教师应将目标取向评价与过程取向评价有机结合,形成综合全面的整合课程评价系统。