哈萨克古代文献研究--金帐汗国克普恰克-花拉子模文献(之一)

金帐汗国时期的克普恰克语文献是古代哈萨克文学一个重要组成部分.介绍了用克普恰克语写成的主要语言学和文学（广义的）方面的文献,并重点介绍了文学方面的重要名著库特普的《胡斯劳与西琳》.     

蒙古对全罗斯统治的策略及崩溃原因

蒙古于1243年建立了东达额尔齐斯河、西至多瑙河下游、南到高加索、北抵罗斯境内的金帐汗国,在政治、经济、军事、宗教等方面采取了一系列卓有成效的统治策略,维持了其统治200多年。最终,金帐汗国由于其统治者的贪掠、统治集团的内讧以及莫斯科公国的发展壮大而逐渐衰落以至崩溃。     

俄罗斯中央集权国家的形成

十三——十四世纪,当罗斯仍然处于封建割据状态时,外部敌人的侵入把罗斯的领土分割成三部分:金帐汗国统治下的东北罗斯;立陶宛统治下的西北罗斯;波兰统治下的加里奇公国(后来立陶宛与波兰合併为一个国家)。十四世纪时,东北罗斯名义上还是一个弗拉基米尔大公国,臣属于金帐汗国,实际上是一些政治上独立的封建国家:特维公国、莫斯科公国、梁赞公国、尼什湼     

从蒙元汗廷金帐看元上都的性质和地位

蒙元汗廷金帐(失剌斡耳朵)是汗廷的权力中心所在地,是汗廷的标志性建筑.可以拆卸和移动的失刺斡耳朵充分反映了游牧文明的游动迁徙特征.失剌斡耳朵设在上都,在失剌斡耳朵举行的元朝传统的政治、经济、宗教、娱乐等活动,充分说明元朝是大蒙古国的延续,上都是曲雕阿阑和哈喇和林在漠南的延续.13 ～ 14世纪除了元朝其他几个汗国也拥有金帐,说明金帐象征着蒙古大小可汗们的政治权利.元廷北迁后,汗廷金帐成为成吉思汗八白帐的组成部分并传承至今.17世纪蒙古文文献中有关失剌斡耳朵的记载说明失刺斡耳朵在北元汗廷和蒙古人中的地位和影响.对蒙元汗廷金帐的研究有助于对于元上都文化的深入研究.     

成吉思汗西征中亚的原因和历史背境

成吉思汗西征中亚的原因和历史背境钱伯泉１３世纪初期，成吉思汗出兵征服了中亚，并将这一地区分封给他的长子术赤和次子察合台，此后形成了钦察汗国（又称“金帐汗国）和察合台汗国。钦察汗国崩溃后，在其境内先后出现了哈萨克汗国、阿斯特拉罕汗国、喀出汗国、克里米亚...     

哈萨克历史研究(一)——金帐汗国

此文为作者撰写的关于哈萨克古文献系列研究文章后,有关哈萨克族历史的第一篇论文。金帐汗国一开始并不是完全独立的政权,它只是大蒙古帝国的一部分,金帐汗国从1242年建立到15世纪中期,存在约200年之久。这一时期是哈萨克民族形成发展历史中的重要阶段,这一时期哈萨克语的特点已经形成。     

英雄城——伏尔加格勒

俄罗斯南部伏尔加河下游右岸有一座历史悠久的城市,该城始建于1589年,蒙古帝国的四大汗国之一金帐汗国第九任君主乌兹别克汗最早在此建都,名为察里津,1925年改名为斯大林格勒,此后在前苏联领导人赫鲁晓夫执政期间即1961年改为伏尔加格勒.而伏尔加格勒在全球闻名皆因第二次世界大战中发生在这里的斯大林格勒战役.斯大林格勒战役作为第二次世界大战的重要转折点,保证了苏联和它的盟国——英国、法国和美国在二战中对法西斯战争的胜利.     

伊儿汗国对外关系之考察

13世纪中期，旭烈兀创建伊儿汗国，在中西交通史上开辟了一个新领域。在黄金氏族内部，诸伊儿汗站在忽必烈一边，坚决反对察哈台系、窝阅台系分裂蒙古帝国的斗争，与元朝保持密切的友好关系，也使伊儿汗国与金帐汗国的斗争局限于领地纠分问题之上。为了实现蒙古帝国向西征服叙利亚、埃及的目标，诸伊儿汗承袭帝国传统的外交政策，企图与基督教西方结成反对埃及马木路克王朝的共同阵线，随着十字军运动的失利和伊儿汗国伊斯兰化，波斯的蒙古人在争夺叙利亚的战争中最终失败。     

《察合台语》语音

《察合台语》是十五世纪到二十世纪初使用的古典书面语。这种书面语分布的地域是相当广的,从我国新疆一直到中亚。《察合台语》一方面是以河中地区、霍拉桑和新疆居民的活的突厥语为基础的,另一方面是以黑汗王朝古典维吾尔文学传统为基础的,也就是说《察合台语》是在黑汗王朝书面突厥语和花刺子模书面突厥语的基础上发展起来的。它包含有黑汗王朝古典维吾尔语的某些特点和十三世纪到十四世纪金帐汗国花刺子模文学的乌古斯—克普恰克语的语言成分。其次,     

蒙古西征下的伊斯兰世界——试论13世纪伊斯兰教的发展

1206年成吉思汗统一蒙古后,新兴的蒙古帝国先后发动三次西征。蒙古的西征一直打到地中海沿岸,其对伊斯兰世界的破坏可以说是毁灭性的。在蒙古军的暴力破坏下,短短数年一大批城市变成废墟,同时伊斯兰的哈里发教廷亦遭摧毁。然而,在伊斯兰教临近灭亡的边缘时,却得以奇迹般地生存下来,并开始了新一轮的发展,蒙古人建立的察合台汗国、伊尔汗国、金帐汗国纷纷伊斯兰化,同时,伊斯兰教在中国亦得到长足发展。整个13世纪可以说是伊斯兰教在其历史中的一个转折点。     

卡思卡特城堡

It is worthy of noting that, whilst Crookston Castle witnessed the earlier and happier portion of Mary's variegated life,     

Western and Eastern culture differences in commercial field

The communication of people partially is the communication of cultures. Culture has a direct effect on international commercial activities in all aspects. Different conceptions about time, space, equality, law and the like, lead people to deal with things in different ways. So to know cultures of the counterpart is to facil-itate our enterprises so as to have a smooth and successful communication in commercial activity.     

不同的吃喝玩乐

一、吃和喝吃苹果 eat an apple, 吃药 take medicine,吃糖 have some sweets,吃饭 have one's meals,吃馆子 dine out,吃惊 be surprised/     

漏洞百出的教育

Many college freshmen arrive woefully unprepared to do college work, and as disadvantaged populations continue to grow, the share of the American work force that has made it through college is expected to plummet. Many experts blame that educational failure not just on high schools but also on colleges. School & College, a special report by The Chronicle, looks at efforts to fix the system. What reforms would better prepare students for college? What should schools and colleges be doing differently? How should state and federal officials help?     

只要努力,不要后悔

There are numbers of crossroads on our long and unpredictable life journey where we totally have no idea about which direction to choose. No matter what our decision is, we should not turn back, but face the music and go ahead instead. I am this kind of girl who always does try without regretting, one example is how I dealt with my love.     

浅谈移民问题

Migration occurs behind a variety of reasons and has a great effect on the whole world. People may migrate in order to improve their economic situation, or in order to escape civil strife, persecution, and environmental disasters. The impact of migration is complex, bringing both benefits anddisadvantages. This paper briefly talks about the causes of migration, the allocation of benefits, and the ways in which individual countries and the international community deal with this important subject.     

Sister Carrie, an Adherent of Desires

Sister Carrie is one of the most controversial characters in American literature.Thought as a "fallen woman" firstly,she was defined as a "new woman" by some critics later. However, by digging into the motivaton behind the whole process of Carrie's "success", the relationship between Carrie and her creator (the author), the social conditions of then American, it can be found that Carrie has never been free-standing on her thought and she has never found her real-sdf even after becoming a famous actress. In a society dominated by mass consumerism Carrie is only an adherent of her own desires. She also is a representative of all those country girls flooded into cities, a symbol and a sacrifice of the urbanization of America in a time countryside was overcome by cities.     

Improvement of one-cycle controller by use of proportional integral differential controller

1.IntroductionOne-cyclecontrolmethod,whichwasproposedaboutonedecadeago[1],hasbecomeanattractivemethodinspecialfieldssuchaspowerfactorcorrection[2-6],switchingamplifiers[7,8],etc.Themainideaofthiscontrollerisbasedonintegrationofdiodevoltageinone-cycleandforcesittobeexactlyequaltothereferencevalue.Themainadvantageofthiscontrollerisitsrealtimeabilitytorejectthevariationofinputvoltage[1].Despitethisgreatability,ithasnogoodperformancesinrejectingofloaddisturbanceandfollowingreferencecommands.Espec…     

风的曲线

Rosco and I wait for the fishermen to return.I sit at a wooden bench near the store at Mt.Baker Resort and watch the clouds change shape. Rosco has my belt around his neck and an eight foot tow chain hooked to a tree. Dogs must be on a leash. Ducks and rabbits are loose.