An Investigation of the Use of E‐Mail as a Supplemental Modality for Clinical Supervision

The authors investigated the use of student‐initiated e‐mail as a supplemental modality for supervision. Nineteen students e‐mailed their instructors weekly during their 15‐week practicum; these e‐mails were analyzed across 3 time periods using the categories of the discrimination model (J. M. Bernard, 1979, 1997) and an adaptation of W. Lanning's (1986) professional behavior category. Although patterns of e‐mails were similar across time, there was a significant decline in the number of e‐mails as the practicum progressed. Significance was found for message focus, with personalization messages and professional behavior/practicum class messages accounting for more than half of the messages across 3 time periods.     

The Results of the Implementation of a Professional Supervision Model on Counselor Trainee Behavior

This article presents the results of the application of a professional model for practicum supervision using co-equal supervisors. This study found that beginning practicum students (a) learned to use a counseling theory in a professional manner with clients, (b) were rated by an expert rater as having skills equal to or higher than a comparison group of interns, graduate students, and employed agency counselors, and (c) rated the professional supervision practicum higher than did those under the usual apprenticeship supervision model. The authors suggest that counselor educators and supervisors can train students in less time to respond at a more complex skill level than has been previously reported in the literature.     

Unsung Heroes: Exploring the roles of school-based professional experience coordinators in Australian preservice teacher education

The literature on practicum in preservice teacher education provides varied and detailed accounts of the roles of the student teacher, the supervising teacher, and the university-based teacher educator. However, the school-based professional experience coordinator, usually the principal or deputy principal, has been dismissed as an administrative outsider to the essential triad of supervision. Feedback from the field suggested that the coordinator's role may in fact be crucial in ensuring that practicum is an occasion for quality learning. This paper reports on a study to explore ways in which a small selection of professional experience coordinators contribute to the establishment, support and appraisal of high quality practicum experience in a variety of settings. The research fills a gap in the existing literature on the practicum by providing some illumination of the varied ways the school-based coordinator role is filled. In addition, the paper raises questions about selection and support of coordinators, about ownership of the practicum, and argues for a reconceptualisation of the practicum as the site where all shareholders engage in the partnership, with continual opportunities for construction, reconstruction and renewal of the teaching profession.     

Dual Supervision: A Model for Counseling and Supervision

The counseling practicum is generally accepted as an essential part of a counselor-training program. Likewise, the training of future counselor educators necessitates experiences in supervision of counseling-practicum students. The dual supervision model described in this article is an approach that simultaneously meets the training needs of future counselors and counselor educators. The rationale for the dual supervision model, the results of an exploratory study of the counselor trainees' attitudes toward the dual supervision process, and the counseling-practicum supervisors' reactions to the model are described. Both the students enrolled in their second quarter of counseling practicum and the supervisors had very positive reactions to the dual supervision model.     

Improving the Quality of Practicum Learning: Self-Study of a Faculty Member’s Role in Practicum Supervision

Abstract

This self-study of activities as a practicum supervisor in several secondary schools focuses on the supervisor’s contribution to the quality of a teacher candidate’s professional learning in the context of a familiar tension between on-campus courses and in-school practicum experiences. Data from both formal and informal supervisory experiences are taken from notes recorded in classes with those supervised formally, records of notes taken in practicum observations, and email messages exchanged with teacher candidates about their supervision experiences. Analysis of formal supervision experiences generated a series of insights into candidates’ experiences of the practicum, a modest innovation in supervisory practice, and important reminders arising from a significant error in personal practice as a supervisor. Informal supervision experiences involved visits arising from invitations to observe extended by candidates in the author’s physics methods course. These experiences generated opportunities to test an alternative supervisory strategy focused on candidates’ perceptions of their learning from experience. Related literature includes the topics of learning from experience, reflective practice, and the potential significance of an epistemology of practice. In closing, attention is given to trustworthiness, the personal significance of the study and connections to the teacher education literature.     

The Practicum: student‐teacher perceptions of teacher supervision styles

This paper describes a study of 28 student‐teachers during a three‐week practicum in which participating students were asked to keep an unstructured journal describing their experiences and reactions to the practicum. The paper examines the perceptions that these students had of the supervision provided by their cooperating teachers. It identifies four distinct styles of teacher supervision, ranging from neglectful practices which alienate students from the practicum experience, to collegial practices which prove to be empowering. The paper concludes that supervision which is collegial is more likely to facilitate the professional growth of student‐teachers and enhance reflective action.     

An Electronic Lifeline: Information and communication technologies in a teacher education internship

Practicum experiences in preservice teacher education are often characterised by disconnection. Preservice teachers are typically disconnected from university faculty and from their peers. Traditionally, university-based supervisors work to bridge the school and university contexts of preservice teacher education and facilitate learning to teach by visiting preservice teachers in their schools. This situation places high importance on the value of face-to-face interaction. The research reported in this paper explores the possibilities of utilising information and communication technologies (ICT) in the practicum component of preservice teacher education. It investigated the use of electronic discussion groups by preservice teachers and university lecturers while the preservice teachers were completing an internship towards the end of their teacher preparation programme. The paper discusses the benefits and challenges as reported by the participants in interviews, draws on the actual text of the electronic communication, analyses the findings, and draws implications for all participants in the preservice teacher education practicum. The study highlights the potential of ICT in providing new learning spaces that enable personal and professional networking and support, and points to reconceptualised notions of university supervision focussing on facilitating learning to teach and promoting reflective practice within the context of a professional learning community rather than as 'check-up' trips to schools.     

The purpose, value and structure of the practicum in higher education: a literature review

The practicum constitutes an integral part of many professional courses in higher education; and is manifest in several different forms depending on the discipline: field experience, cooperative education, sandwich programs, internships, clerkships, clinical practicum, and the like. This paper provides an overview of different ways in which the practicum has been conceptualised, implemented and evaluated in higher education. It focuses attention on the purpose and value of the practicum; the relationship between the practicum and the learning outcomes of a course as a whole; and the structure and placement of the practicum within a course. Findings indicate that whilst the practicum is widely accepted as a valuable and successful component of professional education, it has a number of shortcomings; and the lack of good quality research into the practicum makes it difficult to draw unequivocal conclusions. A number of questions are posed to guide further research into the role of supervision during practicum placements; the kinds of learning goals and outcomes that are best achieved through the practicum; and the impact on student learning of the length and structure of the practicum.     

Using Cognitive Interventions With Counseling Practicum Students During Group Supervision

The authors argue that students in counseling practicum courses experience many self‐defeating thoughts and anxieties. These worries can impede their performance as new counselors and can have a negative impact on the supervision process. The authors outline innovative methods used by cognitive therapists to address this anxiety. In addition, a model is presented for counselor educators to use cognitive restructuring techniques as a supervision tool. Summary Throughout their studies, counseling graduate students face many possible fears and anxieties that arise from their classroom experiences. The greatest fears and anxieties seem to be related to the counseling practicum experience. This experience is one in which students may feel incompetent, vulnerable, and unskilled as they begin to put their classroom knowledge and experiences into practice. If these fears and anxieties persist, students have a hard time making progress in the area of the counseling relationship and skill building. We have examined how practicum students' fears and anxieties might be addressed, using cognitive interventions. Such interventions allow students to take irrational thoughts and change them to rational thought patterns. This is accomplished by asking students to state their fears verbally, to think about the effects of the fears and the consequences, to think about intervening beliefs and thoughts, and to restate the fears in a rational manner. Our experience suggests that cognitive interventions are useful strategies to help practicum students combat fears and anxieties. Further research might examine the use of other behavioral interventions to address these fears. For example, does role‐playing a counseling technique in supervision make a student less anxious about applying it in a real counseling session? In summary, fear and anxiety can impede the preparation of counselors during their practicum experiences. Understanding the underlying thoughts that cause these fears can help students overcome self‐defeating thought patterns. Cognitive restructuring techniques have been shown to reduce tension and can be used with counseling practicum students to help relieve performance and supervision anxiety.     

Integrative Reflective Model of Group Supervision: Practicum Students' Experiences

The authors conducted a phenomenological study of 10 practicum students' experiences of the integrative reflective model of group supervision. Six categories emerged: (a) intentional listening, (b) engaged in the process, (c) extension and application of the model, (d) personalization feedback, (e) mindful listening, and (f) dimensional feedback. An implication was students' openness to constructive feedback in group supervision.     

Development of a Pre-practicum Counseling Skills Model

This article presents a model and rationale for training specific counseling skills prior to the practicum experience. Recent research on counseling process and counselor behaviors is integrated into a pre-practicum training laboratory with the following objectives: reducing social behavior inappropriate to professional counseling, learning to tolerate and use silence as a tool, learning to listen, learning to identify feelings through verbal and nonverbal communication channels, developing a repertoire of counselor responses and counseling strategies, and developing a professional self-image. Acquisition of these skills and attitudes in a pre-practicum permits a consultation-professional model for practicum that focuses upon the accumulation of experience rather than skills.     

Local and global – conflicting perspectives? The place of overseas practicum in preservice teacher education

International practicum is disappearing from teacher education programs with the increasing pressures for ‘local experience’. International practicum is seen as too different from local contexts to develop preservice teachers to meet professional standards. This study explores the teaching development of a group of 24 preservice teachers from a regional university on a placement in Beijing and examines the ways they make explicit connections between their learning on overseas practicum and their teaching in Australia. The findings indicate that it is precisely the difference in teaching contexts that enables professional development in key areas of professional standards. The study challenges perceptions of overseas practicum as ‘cultural tourism’ and also the presumption of conflict between preparing teachers for both global and local contexts.     

Co-counseling Supervision in Practicum

Two groups of 12 trainees were exposed to either monitor-modeling or immediate-feedback supervision in their practicum. Ten-minute individual counseling sessions with coached clients were taped before and after the practicum. Three independent judges rated the tapes, using Carkhuff's scales for gross ratings of facultative interpersonal functioning (Carkhuff 1969). Results indicated that (a) the judges' mean ratings from pretest to posttest increased significantly for the monitor-modeling group but not for the immediate-feedback group; (b) although the results approached significance (p < .09), there were no significant differences on the posttest; and (c) the amount of growth from pretest to posttest was significantly greater for the monitor-modeling group. The data supports the relative effectiveness of monitor-modeling supervision. Additional, more extensive evaluations are suggested to more fully assess the relative value of such team approaches to supervision.     

Trainees' Expectations for the Supervisory Process: Testing a Developmental Model

Based on Stoltenberg's developmental theory and the literature on supervision as a social influence process, a prediction model of trainees' general expectations for the supervisory process was tested. Beginning and advanced practicum students and interns completed a self-efficacy inventory and indicated their outcome expectancies for supervision with respect to their own and their clients' development. Dependent variables were expectations for supervisors' attributes (expertness, attractiveness, trustworthiness) and role (evaluation, support). All of these process dimensions were significantly predicted from trainees' self-efficacy and outcome expectancies, while level of training was of minimal predictive value. In general, trainees expected supervisors to be significantly more trustworthy than expert, more expert than attractive, and more evaluative than supportive.     

The practicum in school psychology: Making use of a university-based psychological service center

This paper examines the manner in which a university clinic may be used to provide a portion of a school psychology student's practicum experiences. Advantages highlighted include providing a broader base of experience than just those of the public school system, and intensive and varied doctoral-level supervision. Discussion centered on the continued need for providing practicum experiences that expose students to a variety of situations.     

Critical Incidents Among Novice Counselor Trainees

The authors attempted to gain an understanding of critical incidents (CIs) from the perspective of novice counselor trainees during their 1st year of supervised clinical practicum. Journals kept by 9 trainees in master's‐level counseling programs were qualitatively analyzed using the discovery‐oriented research methodology (A. Mahrer, 1988). One hundred fifty‐seven CIs emerged in 5 major categories: (a) professional identity, (b) personal reactions, (c) competence, (d) supervision, and (e) philosophy of counseling. Implications of the findings are discussed for counselor development theory and research, as well as counselor training.     

Practicum Supervision Roles: Effects on Supervisee Statements

The practicum supervision model evaluated in this study utilized the three commonly accepted supervision roles of teacher, counselor, and consultant as methods of addressing specific supervisee issues. Supervisors performed the roles in structured supervision sessions, and supervisee statements were analyzed to determine if use of the roles influenced supervisee behaviors. Utilization of the roles was found to be a significantly effective means of influencing the content of supervisee verbalizations during practicum supervision sessions.     

Pre-service teachers’ use of the objective knowledge framework for reflection during practicum

This empirical study, conducted in a Canadian university, argues that the objective knowledge growth framework (OKGF), a self-directed reflective approach, can contribute to the professional development of pre-service teachers in dealing with the complexities of teaching. The paper seeks to answer the following research question: How do pre-service teachers use the OKGF as a self-directed professional development tool to solve teaching practice issues that arise during their practicum? It offers a critical analysis of 24 pre-service teachers’ use of the OKGF, as well as the trends in their application and interpretation of the OKGF in solving issues of teaching practice during practicum.     

Current Trends in Practicum Supervision Research

This article presents a conceptual framework and explores the results and implications of practicum research published from 1975–1982. Forty-two studies were found pertaining directly to practicum supervision and were divided into two categories: maximizing effectiveness of the practicum experience and specific techniques in practicum supervision. Overall, practicum supervision was found to be a worthwhile and beneficial experience and a necessary part of counselor education programs. Focusing on the personality characteristics or value systems of supervisors or supervisees, however, produced mixed results in predicting training effectiveness. There was greater consistency in the examination of specific techniques in supervision with positive outcomes resulting from the utilization of microtraining, dual supervision, peer supervision, modeling, and IPR. The use of programmed instruction was not supported.