Observational learning from animated models: effects of studying–practicing alternation and illusion of control on transfer

Animated models explicating how a problem is solved and why a particular method is chosen are expected to be effective learning tools for novices, especially when abstract cognitive processes or concepts are involved. Cognitive load theory was used to investigate how learners could be stimulated to engage in genuine learning activities. It was hypothesized that illusion of control would impede transfer performance compared to a condition without illusion of control. Moreover, we hypothesized that learners who first studied an animated model and then solved the same problem would perform better on transfer than learners who studied the same animated model twice or who first solved the problem and then studied the animated model. In a 2 × 3 factorial experiment (N = 90) with the factors illusion of control (yes vs. no) and instruction method (study–practice, practice–study, study–study) only the first hypothesis was confirmed. Implications for the design of animated models are discussed.     

Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results on learning

New technologies allow the display of text, static visuals, and animations. Although animations are inherently attractive, they are not always beneficial for learning. Problems may arise especially when animations modify the learner's cognitive load in an unintended way. In two learning experiments with 40 and 26 university students, the effects of animated pictures on knowledge acquisition were investigated. Some pictures displayed visual simulations of changes over time, whereas other pictures could be manipulated by learners to represent different states in time. Results showed that manipulation pictures had an enabling function for individuals with high learning prerequisites, whereas simulation pictures had a facilitating function for individuals with low learning prerequisites. However, the facilitating function was not beneficial for learning, because learners were prevented from performing relevant cognitive processes on their own. A careful analysis of the interrelation between different kinds of cognitive load and the process of learning is therefore required.     

Dynamics of affective states during complex learning

We propose a model to explain the dynamics of affective states that emerge during deep learning activities. The model predicts that learners in a state of engagement/flow will experience cognitive disequilibrium and confusion when they face contradictions, incongruities, anomalies, obstacles to goals, and other impasses. Learners revert into the engaged/flow state if equilibrium is restored through thought, reflection, and problem solving. However, failure to restore equilibrium as well as obstacles that block goals trigger frustration, which, if unresolved, will eventually lead to boredom. The major hypotheses of the model were supported in two studies in which participants completed a 32-35 min tutoring session with a computer tutor. Their affective states were tracked at approximately 110 points in their tutoring sessions via a retrospective affect judgment protocol. Time series analyses confirmed the presence of confusion-engagement/flow, boredom-frustration, and confusion-frustration oscillations. We discuss enhancements of the model to address individual differences and pedagogical and motivational strategies that are inspired by the model.     

远程教育中的智能教学代理：角色、设计要素与应用方式

智能教学代理是以鲜活的动画人物或拟人形象出现在计算机辅助教学过程中,对学习者进行学习支持的教育软件。智能教学代理近年来受到广泛关注,其应用和研究的广度和深度也在不断增加。在远程教育领域,智能教学代理可以作为辅导教师、学习伙伴、自身影像和实习对象,从认知、情感、创新等方面给予远程教育支持。为了保证智能教学代理的效果,设计过程中应注重其形象、能力、信息传递、情绪状态和交互方式等因素的设计。当前智能教学代理的研究尝试从双代理或多代理角度优化教学环境,提供更为精细、多元化的形象、信息和交互方式。今后,学者们将把学习者特征纳入到智能教学代理研究中,挖掘其在情感和元认知支持方面的更多功能。     

Learning 'How' Versus Learning 'When': Improving Transfer of Problem-Solving Principles

How can problem solving be improved in domains where similar principles are learned? A series of three experiments based on Ross (1987) examined how instructing learners about when to apply problem-solving principles may later improve performance. In Experiment 1, subjects studied a similar pair (combinations and permutations) or a distinct pair (combinations and conditional probability) of probability principles. Haft of the subjects received information on when to apply the principles (applicability-instructions condition), whereas other subjects received instructions that reviewed how to solve problems using the principles (procedural-review condition). Subjects who received applicability instructions made fewer confusion errors than subjects who received procedural-review instructions when learning the similar problem pair. However, this instructional manipulation had no effect when subjects were learning the distinct problem pair. Because applicability instructions affect confusion errors but not overall performance, they may improve the ability to identify when to apply a procedure but may not improve memory for the formula or the ability to instantiate it. Experiment 2 supported this notion by showing that subjects given applicability instructions did better at selecting when to use each formula. Experiment 3 tested whether giving learners the pairs of examples to review together afforded them the opportunity to learn the applicability conditions on their own. The results showed that the important differences between the principles (i.e., why the formulas apply in certain situations) must be identified in the instructional material because subjects were not likely to induce the differences on their own. The results showed that when differences between the related principles are identified in instructional material (i.e., why the formula applies in certain problems), these applicability instructions may serve to reduce confusion in noticing and selecting...     

Confusion and complex learning during interactions with computer learning environments

Folk wisdom holds that being confused is detrimental to learning. However, research on emotions and learning suggest a somewhat more complex relationship between confusion and learning outcomes. In fact, it has been proposed that impasses that trigger states of cognitive disequilibrium and confusion can create opportunities for deep learning of conceptually difficult content. This paper discusses four computer learning environments that either naturally or artificially induce confusion in learners in order to create learning opportunities. First, an Intelligent Tutoring System called AutoTutor that engenders confusion through challenging problems and vague hints is described. The remaining three environments were specifically designed to induce confusion through a number of different interventions. These interventions include device breakdowns, contradictory information, and false feedback. The success and limitations of confusion induction and the impact of confusion resolution on learning are discussed. Potential methods to help learners productively manage their confusion instead of being hopelessly confused are also discussed.     

技能习得中的动画效应研究

在学习"狐狸"和"纸鹤"两种手工折纸的过程中,分别呈现给学习者动画(动态画面+语音解说)、图文(静态图片+文字解说)两种版本的学习材料进行学习。通过对学习者学习过程和学习结果的测量发现:动画版本学习材料相比于图文版本来说,学习者在学习时间和理解错误次数上均较少,即存在动画效应,但是否有显著差异还与学习材料的难易有关。     

Learning from animation enabled by collaboration

Animated graphics are extensively used in multimedia instructions explaining how natural or artificial dynamic systems work. As animation directly depicts spatial changes over time, it is legitimate to believe that animated graphics will improve comprehension over static graphics. However, the research failed to find clear evidence in favour of animation. Animation may also be used to promote interactions in computer-supported collaborative learning. In this setting as well, the empirical studies have not confirmed the benefits that one could intuitively expect from the use of animation. One explanation is that multimedia, including animated graphics, challenges human processing capacities, and in particular imposes a substantial working memory load. We designed an experimental study involving three between-subjects factors: the type of multimedia instruction (with static or animated graphics), the presence of snapshots of critical steps of the system (with or without snapshots) and the learning setting (individual or collaborative). The findings indicate that animation was overall beneficial to retention, while for transfer, only learners studying collaboratively benefited from animated over static graphics. Contrary to our expectations, the snapshots were marginally beneficial to learners studying individually and significantly detrimental to learners studying in dyads. The results are discussed within the multimedia comprehension framework in order to propose the conditions under which animation can benefit to learning.     

Individual and co-operative learning with interactive animated pictures

Computer-based multimedia learning environments make it possible to present interactive animated pictures, which can be manipulated for active exploratory learning and which allow the dynamic behavior of complex subject matter to be displayed. Due to the large range of possibilities for exploratory interaction, such learning environments seem well suited for co-operative learning in which different learners analyse the presented subject matter from different perspectives. This paper first describes a theoretical framework for learning from texts and pictures together with an analysis of possible effects of animation and interactivity on knowledge acquisition. It then presents two empirical studies in which knowledge acquisition from interactive animated pictures was compared with knowledge acquisition from static pictures under the conditions of individual learning (Study I) and of cooperative learning (Study II). In Study I, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted in a superior encoding of detail information, but did not facilitate performance of mental simulation tasks. In Study II, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted both in inferior encoding of detail information and poorer results in mental simulations. These findings and the analysis of discourse protocols of subjects’ co-operation suggest that exploratory learning with interactive animated pictures is associated with extraneous cognitive load and that this load can be further increased by the co-ordination demands of co-operative learning. Although animated pictures may provide external support for mental simulations, they do not appear to be generally beneficial for learning, because they can prevent individuals from performing relevant cognitive processes.     

The affordances of AI-enabled automatic scoring applications on learners’ continuous learning intention: An empirical study in China

Traditional educational giants and natural language processing companies have launched several artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled digital learning applications to facilitate language learning. One typical application of AI in digital language education is the automatic scoring application that provides feedback on pronunciation repeat outcomes. This research is motivated by the usage of automatic scoring-empowered digital learning tools by language learners, and set out to uncover the influencing mechanisms of AI-enabled automatic scoring application affordances on learners’ continuous learning intention. Specifically, based on affordance theory, we found several automatic scoring application affordances through in-depth interviews. Considering the current lack of investigations on the mechanisms underlying automatic scoring application and its implications for learners’ learning behaviors, we built a model to examine the role of automatic scoring application affordances on cognitive/emotional engagement and following continuous learning intention. We further examined the moderation role of in-job learners and student learners on the above relationships. The model was tested using a survey of 260 Chinese foreign language learners who used AI-empowered learning tools to facilitate their language learning practices. This study explores why learners continuously use AI-enabled automatic scoring applications by identifying the affordances that differentiate it from traditional educational technologies. Practitioners could take the identified affordances into account when designing AI-enabled language learning applications.     

Animated agent immediacy and news services with handheld computers

The present study considers the design and implementation of immediacy behaviors for an animated agent and the influence of such an agent on viewers. Immediacy, a widely studied construct in human communication research, is defined as the verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors that enhance physical and psychological closeness between people. In this study, the use of animated agent immediacy with new technology, a handheld computer, was studied as a form of affective computing. The purpose of the study was first to find out whether users perceive the communication behaviors of the agent that were intended to enhance immediacy, second, what effects animated agent immediacy has on evaluations of a news service, and third whether affective learning or recall of news content is related to agent immediacy. The results revealed that communication behaviors that enhance immediacy were perceived by the users. Those behaviors were also related to their perception of immediacy. However, the animated agent immediacy did not have a significant effect on evaluation of the news service. Additionally, agent immediacy had no effect on affective or cognitive learning from the news. The results show that it is possible to construct immediacy behaviors for the animated agents, but in this context the influences differed from those reported in human‐to‐human communication. The possibilities for and consequences of agent immediacy are also discussed, as are the reasons why the effects of immediacy on evaluations and learning were not found in the present study.     

Science Education in Primary Schools: Is an Animation Worth a Thousand Pictures?

Science teaching deals with abstract concepts and processes that very often cannot be seen or touched. The development of Java, Flash, and other web-based applications allow teachers and educators to present complex animations that attractively illustrate scientific phenomena. Our study evaluated the integration of web-based animated movies into primary schools science curriculum. Our goal was to examine teachers’ methods for integrating animated movies and their views about the role of animations in enhancing young students’ thinking skills. We also aimed at investigating the effect of animated movies on students’ learning outcomes. Applying qualitative and quantitative tools, we conducted informal discussions with science teachers (N = 15) and administered pre- and post-questionnaires to 4th (N = 641) and 5th (N = 694) grade students who were divided into control and experimental groups. The experimental group students studied science while using animated movies and supplementary activities at least once a week. The control group students used only textbooks and still-pictures for learning science. Findings indicated that animated movies support the use of diverse teaching strategies and learning methods, and can promote various thinking skills among students. Findings also indicated that animations can enhance scientific curiosity, the acquisition of scientific language, and fostering scientific thinking. These encouraging results can be explained by the fact that the students made use of both visual-pictorial and auditory-verbal capabilities while exploring animated movies in diverse learning styles and teaching strategies.     

Supporting coherence formation in learning from multiple representations

Multimedia learning environments combine multiple forms of representations like texts, static and animated pictures or graphs. Knowledge acquisition from multiple representations requires that the learner create referential connections between corresponding elements and corresponding structures in different representations. As this process is usually difficult, learners frequently fail to construct coherent mental representations and, thus, do not sufficiently understand the subject matter. This paper analyzes the effects of different kinds of instructional help on the process of coherence formation from multiple representations by learners with different prior knowledge. Three groups of university students with different domain-specific knowledge had to learn a complex subject matter from chemistry using six different forms of representation. In addition, a first group received directive help for coherence formation. A second group received non-directive help, and a third group received no instructional help. Results indicate that directive help is effective for recall performance because of its summarizing and repeating function. Furthermore, learners with different levels of prior knowledge show different reactions when help is given. For learners with insufficient prior knowledge help is not helpful or, in case of recall performance, even harmful. Learners with a medium level of prior knowledge can increase especially their comprehension performance when help is offered, whereas learners with too much prior knowledge seem not to be affected by help.     

Seeking optimal confusion: a review on epistemic emotion management in interactive digital learning environments

Emotions play a significant part in students’ learning experiences within complex educational environments. However, the impact of emotional experiences on effective learning is not straightforward. For example, being confused during learning may be perceived as an adverse event. There is, however, considerable research evidence suggesting that confusion can also be a productive aspect of a student's learning processes. Despite this, research also suggests that when confusion is persistent it can become harmful, promoting learner frustration or boredom. Key challenges for the design of interactive digital learning environments (IDLEs) are to detect and assess students’ emotions and to tailor the environment accordingly. In this paper we examine, from a review of the literature, the implications of learners’ confusion that can occur in IDLEs. Strategies for managing students’ confusion will then be discussed and examples of features enhancing learning in IDLEs will be suggested.     

Embellishing Problem-Solving Examples with Deep Structure Information Facilitates Transfer

Appreciation of problem structure is critical to successful learning. Two experiments investigated effective ways of communicating problem structure in a computer-based learning environment and tested whether verbal instruction is necessary to specify solution steps, when deep structure is already embellished by instructional examples. Participants learned to solve algebra-like problems and then solved transfer problems that required adjustment of learned procedures. Experiment 1 demonstrated that verbal instruction helped learning by reducing learners' floundering, but its positive effect disappeared in the transfer. More importantly, students transferred better when they studied with examples that emphasized problem structure rather than solution procedure. Experiment 2 showed that verbal instruction was not necessarily more effective than nonverbal scaffolding to convey problem structure. Final understanding was determined by transparency of problem structure regardless of presence of verbal instruction. However, verbal instruction had a positive impact on learners by having them persist through the task, and optimal instructional choices were likely to differ depending on populations of learners.     

巴班斯基教学过程最优化理论的批判性思考

本文指出了巴班斯基教学过程最优化理论的两个重要缺陷：一是忽视“学是教学矛盾发展的主体”，侧重于社会的、教师的外围建构教学系统；二是以僵死的“既定标准”来判断最优化问题，单一地采用了难以适应复杂教学系统的线性设计，并在此基础上提出，当今以信息化的特征的“新教育”要从学习最优化入手，以全面现实的标准和多极次非线性的思路来优化设计和进行方案检测。     

Fostering multiple text comprehension: How metacognitive strategies and motivation moderate the text-belief consistency effect

Learners often have difficulties comprehending multiple texts about controversial scientific issues. In particular, learners with strong prior beliefs tend to construct a one-sided mental representation that is biased towards belief-consistent information (text-belief consistency effect). In the present study we examined the effectiveness of information of three metacognitive strategies tailored to strengthen the comprehension of belief-inconsistent information during multiple text comprehension. According to theories of self-regulated learning, knowledge about relevant metacognitive strategies improves comprehension only when learners are also motivated to use these strategies. These hypotheses were investigated in an experiment in which 85 participants read one belief-consistent and one belief-inconsistent text about a controversial scientific issue. Participants either received information about three metacognitive strategies or no additional information. In addition, participants’ motivation was manipulated by providing them with either negative or positive performance feedback or no feedback. As predicted, a text-belief consistency effect was found, which was eliminated by strengthening the situation model for the belief-inconsistent text only when learners received information about relevant metacognitive strategies and were motivated to use these strategies after positive performance feedback.     

An examination of digital game-based situated learning applied to Chinese language poetry education

By gradually placing more importance on game-based education and changing learning motivation by applying game-playing characteristics, students’ learning experiences can be enhanced and a better learning effect can be achieved. When teaching the content of Chinese poetry in Taiwanese junior high schools, most teachers only explain the meaning of Chinese poetry, while it is difficult for students to understand why poets write these poems, resulting in learning confusion. This paper implemented a digital game-based situated learning system based on Tang Dynasty poems for learning Chinese poetry to simulate the situations of hardship encountered by poets when writing poetry in animated form to help junior high school students in Taiwan to have greater understanding when learning the content of Chinese poetry. The research results show that students who used the Gourd Tang Dynasty system in game-based instruction had significantly better learning achievements than students who underwent traditional narrative instruction. Among them, students in the low learning ability group improved in their grades significantly more than students in the high learning ability group in terms of their Tang Dynasty poetry learning. Furthermore, the authors examined the predictive relationships between perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and behavioural intention related to the digital game-based situated learning system for Chinese language poetry. The factor of perceived usefulness was a key factor in the students’ positive attitudes towards the digital game-based situated learning system. There were no significant differences with respect to individual characteristics (i.e. gender, online game experience and digital learning experience). The results demonstrate that this type of system can be widely accepted by students with different learning experiences.     

Static and animated presentations in learning dynamic mechanical systems

In two experiments, we investigated how learners comprehend the functioning of a three-pulley system from a presentation on a computer screen. In the first experiment (N = 62) we tested the effect of static vs. animated presentations on comprehension. In the second experiment (N = 45), we tested the effect of user-control of an animated presentation on comprehension. In both experiments the participants were university students. Comprehension was measured with a test including three comprehension indicators. The first experiment indicated that an animation as well as integrated sequential static frames enhanced comprehension. The second experiment showed that a controllable animation did not have a powerful effect on comprehension, except for learners with low spatial and mechanical reasoning abilities.