The Transition From Sublexical to Lexical Processing in a Consistent Orthography: An Eye-Tracking Study

We studied the transition in predominant reading strategy from serial sublexical processing to more parallel lexical processing as a function of word familiarity in German children of Grades 2, 3, 4, and adults. High-frequency words, low-frequency words, and nonwords of differing length were embedded in sentences and presented in an eye-tracking paradigm. The size of the word length effect was used as an indicator of serial sublexical decoding. When controlling for the generally higher processing times in younger readers, the effect of length over reading development was not direct but modulated by familiarity: Length effects were comparable between items of differing familiarity for Grade 2, whereas from Grade 3, length effects increased with decreasing familiarity. These findings suggest that Grade 2 children apply serial sublexical decoding as a default reading strategy to most items, whereas reading by direct lexical access is increasingly dominant in more experienced readers.     

双语词汇通达：理论、范式及其研究进展

从双语词汇通达的理论假设、研究范式、实验研究等方面介绍了当前双语词汇通达的研究现状与进展。指出了目前双语词汇通达研究面临的一些问题以及未来的研究方向,认为未来的研究一方面要运用多种研究范式探讨双语词汇通达的机制,另一方面要探讨双语词汇通达的机制是否因为双语类型的不同而不同。     

What makes a word difficult? Insights into the mental representation of technical terms

Learning from texts requires reflection on how far one has mastered the material. Learners use such metacognitive processes to decide whether to engage in deeper learning activities or not. This article examines how the lexical surface of specialist concepts influences their mental representation. Lexical encodings that are the concise wordings of a concept (e.g., tension headache or migraine for specific types of headache) provide immediate access to the underlying content. To understand learning contents appropriately, learners have to work on such lexical covers to gain insight into the underlying semantic meaning. It was assumed that a technical term??s origin (either German or classical Latin/Greek) is used systematically as a hint for further elaboration. 41 college students rated the difficulty, familiarity, competence, accessibility, and their knowledge of 17 German-language (GL) terms and their classical language (CL) synonyms. The influence of word frequency was controlled. As expected, results showed that GL terms were perceived to be less difficult than CL terms. Consequently, comprehension of these terms was rated more highly. Analyses of how lexical encoding influenced accuracy of participants?? comprehension judgments showed that participants?? comprehension ratings were less accurate for GL terms. Theoretical and practical implications for learning from written information are discussed.     

School-Age Children Adapt the Dynamics of Lexical Competition in Suboptimal Listening Conditions

Although the ability to understand speech in adverse listening conditions is paramount for effective communication across the life span, little is understood about how this critical processing skill develops. This study asks how the dynamics of spoken word recognition (i.e., lexical access and competition) change during soft speech in 8- to 11-year-olds (n = 26). Lexical competition and access for speech at lower intensity levels was measured using eye-tracking and the visual world paradigm. Overall the results suggest that soft speech influences the magnitude and timing of lexical access and competition. These results suggest that lexical competition is a cognitive process that can be adapted in the school-age years to help cope with increased uncertainty due to alterations in the speech signal.     

汉语阅读中词汇通达的认知加工机制

阅读中词汇通达的模型主要有三种,即直通模型、语音中介模型、二重通路模型。汉字是一种不同于拼音文字的表意文字,汉字字形的表意作用大于拼音文字,在汉字词汇通达中,汉语字(词)义的提取可能更符合直通理论的假设,不同于英文更符合双通道理论的假设。所以应针对不同文字类型提出相应不同的词义通达理论,探讨出不同文字类型间认知加工的差异,才能真正弄清汉语阅读的词汇通达机制。     

词汇提取对于中国高职英语学习者记忆生词的影响

多项研究表明词汇提取对词汇学习具有促进作用。以24个英语单词为实验材料,高职一年级学生为实验对象,在以图片为基础的词汇教学实验中,检测在词汇提取条件下和控制条件下进行新单词学习效果的不同。     

The nature of reader ability differences in lexical access

Can good and poor readers be differentiated by their use of word-naming and lexical access codes? Poor readers experience extreme difficulty in decoding nonsense words, indicating that they cannot use the spelling to sound rules which underlie the indirect phonological route to word pronunciation. However, recent evidence suggests that poor readers do use a phonological route for lexical access in word and picture naming tasks which rely upon the production of a phonological code. Is this also true of other tasks, which are not dependent upon phonological representation? Two such tasks are described in the present study: one involving picture-word interference, and the other involving a lexical decision paradigm. Results showed that poor readers do use a phonological route to lexical access independent of task demand. A review of findings in this area to date shows several inconsistencies, and an attempt is made to resolve these by drawing on Stanovich's (1980) interactive-compensatory model of reading.     

手语产生：过程及影响因素

手语产生是聋人借助于手形的变化并辅以相应的表情、姿势来传达思想的过程。手语产生的核心过程是词汇通达,包含词条选择（语义提取）和音位编码（语音提取）两个阶段。手语的获得年龄、手语的象似性、手语词的语音相似性、手形位置和手语加工的脑偏侧化影响手语的产生。     

On the use of lexical stress in reading Spanish

This paper investigates whether or not lexical stress is used for lexical access in Spanish. A lexical decision task and a masking priming procedure were used to compare correctly-versus-incorrectly stressed words (e.g., técla-TECLA vs. teclá-TECLA). SOA (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony) was manipulated at 33, 66, 100, and 143 ms. The results showed that congruent condition was easier, but in 143 ms SOA only. Furthermore, while congruent condition did not differ from a control identity condition (e.g., tecla-TECLA) incongruent condition was slower, but in 100 and 143 ms SOA only. All these results suggest that stress affects lexical access at a late stage of lexical access processing. Reading models should be re-designed in order to include lexical stress as another phonological code which is used for reading.     

Effects of word and morpheme familiarity on reading of derived words

The purpose of this study is to examine factors that influence students’ reading of derived words. Recent research suggests that the lexical quality of a derived word depends on the familiarity of the word, its morphemic constituents (i.e., base word and affixes), and the frequency with which the base word appears in other words (i.e., members of the same word family or family frequency). On the premise that better and more experienced readers have higher quality lexical representations, we explore the extent to which accuracy of reading derived words by 4th and 6th graders is related to measures of familiarity, including derived and base word frequencies, family size, average family frequency, and word length. The results of an exploratory factor analysis indicated that these measures formed two factors, one representing morphemic constitution and the second representing exposure to the word family; both factors accounted for significant variance in the students’ derived word reading. Comparisons of sets of derived words contrasted on familiarity properties showed that performance on derived words, overall, is better for 6th than 4th graders and for good than poor readers. On the measures of family frequency and family size, there were significant discrepancies between grade level and reading ability and frequency characteristics. These add support to the view that morphemic analysis and wide reading experience contribute to derived word reading.     

Morphological structures in visual word recognition: the case of Arabic

This research examined the function within lexical access of the main morphemic units from which most Arabic words are assembled, namely roots and word patterns. The present study focused on the derivation of nouns, in particular, whether the lexical representation of Arabic words reflects their morphological structure and whether recognition of a word involves recognition of its morphological constituents. The morphology of Arabic language constitutes two main systems: inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology is used to express grammatical relations and derivational morphology deals with the formation of new words in language; it contains two types of word patterns: verbal and nominal. In this study, it was assumed that roots are lexical entities that can facilitate lexical access to a large cluster of words that derive from them, whereas word patterns are not lexical entities and have no role in access to words assembled by them. The lexical representations of the main morphemic units were examined in four experiments using skilled readers applying masked priming technique tasks: lexical decision and naming. The results indicated that previous exposure to a word sharing the same word pattern had no marked facilitating effect on lexical decision or on naming. The main conclusion of this study on the morphology of Arabic is that roots and word patterns have no essential role in word organisation in the mental lexicon. In addition, words in nominal pattern in derivational morphology are represented in their whole shape in the mental lexicon and each word has an independent representation.     

词汇歧义消解的认知研究:理论、方法与现状

近２０年来,在词汇歧义消解领域,研究者采用多种技术进行实验,提出了４ 种典型的模型,即多重通过模型、选择通达模型、重排序通过模型和整合模型。到目前 为止,不同的研究之间仍然存在很大分歧。今后的研究应该在考察语境作用时间点的同 时,重点探讨语境影响歧义词意义通达的机制,特别是应该重视对歧义词加工中抑制过 程的探讨     

What's in a Name Depends on the Type of Name: The Relationships Between Semantic and Phonological Access,Reading Fluency,and Reading Comprehension

The present study investigated the relationships between lexical access, reading fluency, and comprehension. Two components of speed of lexical access were studied: phonological and semantic. Previous studies have mainly investigated these components of lexical access separately. The present study examined both components in naming tasks—with isolated letters (phonological) and pictures (semantic). Seventy-five Grade 5 students were administered measures of letter and picture naming speed, word and nonword reading fluency, and reading comprehension, together with control measures of vocabulary. The results showed that letter naming was a unique predictor of word reading fluency, whereas picture naming was not. Conversely, picture naming speed contributed unique variance to reading comprehension, whereas letter naming did not. The results indicate that phonological and semantic lexical access speed are separable components that are important for different reading subskills.     

Exploring the Role of Bases and Suffixes When Reading Familiar and Unfamiliar Words: Evidence From French Young Readers

We examined whether French third- and fifth-grade children rely on morphemes when recognizing words and whether this reliance depends on word familiarity. We manipulated the presence of bases and suffixes in words and pseudowords to compare their contribution in a lexical decision task. Both bases and suffixes facilitated word reading accuracy and speed across all grades, even though the co-occurrence of a base and a suffix reduced the benefit associated to the presence of morphemes in third-grade children. Speed of pseudoword (i.e., unfamiliar word) reading was also influenced by base and suffix, and the combination of these units leaded to a high rate of false alarms. These results bring new evidence of morphological analysis in the reading of French familiar and unfamiliar words.     

Spelling development in 6–11‐year‐old Greek‐speaking Cypriot children

The aim of the present study was to examine the spelling development of Greek‐speaking children in the early school grades. Although Greek orthography is regular for reading, it is much less transparent as far as spelling is concerned. Spelling development was investigated using a word spelling task designed to explore the effects of word length, familiarity and spelling regularity. One hundred and fifty normally developing primary school children living in Cyprus took part in the study. Results suggest that the children employed both phonological and lexical strategies in spelling Greek words. Results indicated that sub‐lexical procedures were more marked for younger children, whereas lexical processing was employed more widely by older children. The findings are interpreted in terms of stage developmental models.     

非熟练汉-俄双语学生的俄语词汇通达研究

笔者采用语义任务语音干扰和语音任务语义干扰的范式,考察母语为汉语的俄语学生俄语词汇通达语音、语义的作用。结果表明:语音任务中,被试对同义异音词的反应时较长,错误率高;语义任务中,被试对同音异义词反应时较长,错误率高。该结果证明母语为汉语的俄语学生俄语词汇通达中语音、语义共同起作用。实验结果支持词汇通达双通道模型。     

大学新生失范行为的社会学分析

从高中进入大学是人生中的一大转折点。大学新生要经历生活方式、学习方式、社会交往方式以及思想观念的转变,如果不适应这一转变,再加上不成熟的价值观和世界观的影响,就会不可避免地出现失范行为。     

第二语言的语义通达机制的实验研究

采用典型启动效应的实验范式，语义和语音两种不同加工水平的试验任务，通过3个实验探讨了中英双语第二语言的语义通达机制。被试为第二军医大学的学生38名。结果发现：在基于语义的范畴判断任务中，当启动刺激（英）和目标刺激（英）之间存在语义联想关系，得到了显著的启动效应（实验一）；当启动刺激（中）和目标刺激（英）之间存在语义联想关系，即与实验一对等的跨语言语义启动试验，也得到了显著的跨语言启动效应，而且实验一和实验二的启动值之间没有显著的差异（实验二）；当启动刺激（中）的翻译对等词和目标刺激（英）之间存在语音相同或相近关系时，采用基于语音的词汇判断任务，也得到了显著的跨语言启动效应。这一结果表明，对于中国大学生程度的中英双语者来说，他们第二语言的词汇表征既直接通达语义概念表征，又可以借助第一语言的词汇表征为中介再通达语义概念表征，与Kroll等提出的模型一致。     

言语听辨中的词汇提取及其对听力理解的启示

言语听辨是心理语言学有关言语理解研究中的一个重要内容,它重点探索的是言语听辨的过程,也就是对言语声音刺激信号的确认和加工到最终理解言语内容和言语意义的过程。文章分析了影响言语听辨的两个主要因素——言语因素和非言语因素,再以言语听辨的理论模型和词汇提取的相关理论为框架,特别对Marslen—Wilson提出的交股模型进行了详细分析。而交股模型理论反映了言语自左而右的特性,这点正好与听力取词的顺序一致,从中得出了5点有效地提高听力理解效率的启示。     

从二语心理词汇表征角度探索大学英语词汇习得策略

词汇习得是贯穿整个外语学习过程的重要组成部分,也是大学英语学习的难点。本文根据有关二语心理词汇知识的组织、提取和发展表征的理论体系来探讨大学英语词汇习得方法。英语教材的词汇编排部分需要重新设置,联想和重组建立词汇语义网络,在语境中加强词汇的深度学习,旨在提高大学生英语词汇习得的效率。