Children exposed to child maltreatment and intimate partner violence: a study of co-occurrence among Hong Kong Chinese families

Objective

This study assessed the co-occurrence of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV) and examined the association between them.

Method

The cross-sectional study recruited a population-based sample of 1,094 children aged 12-17 years in Hong Kong. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from the children. The prevalence of occurrence of child abuse and neglect by parents and exposure to IPV in both the past year and lifetime was examined, and their correlates were assessed using univariate and multivariate logistic regression.

Results

The results show that 26% and 14.6% of child participants had been exposed to IPV physical assault, and 44.4% and 22.6% had been subjected to a parent's corporal punishment or to physical maltreatment from a parent in their lifetime and the year preceding the study, respectively. Among those families characterized by IPV, 54.4% and 46.5% were involved in child physical maltreatment over the child's lifetime and in the preceding year, respectively.

Conclusions

Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that children exposed to IPV were at higher risk of being victims of neglect, corporal punishment, and physical maltreatment or severe physical maltreatment by their parents than children who were not exposed to IPV, even when child and parent demographic factors were controlled for.

Practical implications

The higher risk of child physical maltreatment associated with IPV highlights the need for an integrated assessment to screen for the presence of multiple forms of family violence within the family, and for intervention to assess effective responses to both IPV and child maltreatment by child protective service workers and domestic violence agencies.     

Corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children

The adverse effect of harsh corporal punishment on mental health and psychosocial functioning in children has been repeatedly suggested by studies in industrialized countries. Nevertheless, corporal punishment has remained common practice not only in many homes, but is also regularly practiced in schools, particularly in low-income countries, as a measure to maintain discipline. Proponents of corporal punishment have argued that the differences in culture and industrial development might also be reflected in a positive relationship between the use of corporal punishment and improving behavioral problems in low-income nations. In the present study we assessed the occurrence of corporal punishment at home and in school in Tanzanian primary school students. We also examined the association between corporal punishment and externalizing problems. The 409 children (52% boys) from grade 2 to 7 had a mean age of 10.49 (SD = 1.89) years. Nearly all children had experienced corporal punishment at some point during their lifetime both in family and school contexts. Half of the respondents reported having experienced corporal punishment within the last year from a family member. A multiple sequential regression analysis revealed that corporal punishment by parents or by caregivers was positively related to children's externalizing problems. The present study provides evidence that Tanzanian children of primary school age are frequently exposed to extreme levels of corporal punishment, with detrimental consequences for externalizing behavior. Our findings emphasize the need to inform parents, teachers and governmental organizations, especially in low-income countries, about the adverse consequences of using corporal punishment be it at home or at school.     

Psychological correlates of physical abuse in Hong Kong Chinese adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To understand the associations between adolescent family physical maltreatment and psychiatric morbidity or psychological problems. METHODS: questionnaire survey on 489 secondary school students in Form 2 from 10 schools in Hong Kong. Questions regarding three forms of family physical maltreatment were measured: corporal punishment within the past 6 months, beaten without any reason within the past 6 months, or ever been beaten to injury. MAIN RESULT: Corporal punishment was not associated with the psychological variables after Bonferroni adjustment was made. Those who experienced the two other forms of physical maltreatment had significant and strong associations with positive Achenbach CBCL outcome (OR from 3.26 to 3.27), drug abuse problems (OR from 2.60 to 20.38), self-injurious behaviors (OR from 3.34 to 8.47) and poor perceived parental support. In addition, those who had ever been beaten to injury scored significantly lower in the "physical appearance" and "behavioral conduct" subscales of the Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: In Hong Kong, some forms of family physical maltreatment (beaten for no reason and beaten to injury) were associated with a number of psychiatric/psychological problems. Further studies should be carried out to clarify whether the relationships are causal in nature.     

Prevalence and correlates of physical abuse in Hong Kong Chinese adolescents: a population-based approach.

OBJECTIVE: The objectives were to estimate the prevalence and correlates of physical abuse-related outcomes in the family setting in Hong Kong's adolescent population. METHOD: A cross-sectional study design was used. A randomly selected sample of 3,355 secondary school students in Kwai Tsing District of Hong Kong was surveyed. The response rate was 98%. RESULTS: The prevalence rates of corporal punishment, being beaten by parents for no apparent reason, being beaten to injury by family members in the past 3 months and any one of the above three were 4.9% (95% CI, 4.2% to 5.6%), 2.0% (95% CI, 1.5% to 2.5%), 1.1% (95% CI, .98% to 1.2%) and 6.6% (95% CI, 5.7% to 7.5%), respectively. Students who had experienced the above physical abuse-related outcomes were at a significant disadvantage for a wide range of morbidity indicators, including self-perceived bad health, anxiety and stress, somatic illnesses (such as asthma and epigastric pain), injuries and accidents, and hospitalization. They were more likely to have poor familial relations and coping skills, and to take up habits which potentially put their health at risk, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and fighting with others. CONCLUSIONS: Our prevalence estimates of physical abuse in the family setting for a student population in Hong Kong is an improvement over previous local estimates of physical abuse occurrence, which were mainly based on case notifications and clinical samples. The results also show that the abused adolescents are growing up in an environment filled with physical, psychological, and familial adversities.     

Homework involvement and functions: perceptions of Hong Kong Chinese primary school students and parents

This study examines the perceptions of Chinese students and parents in Hong Kong on homework involvement, assignment type and homework functions. The relationships of homework perceptions to student and parent attributes are also assessed. The sample includes 1393 pairs of students and their parents from 36 primary schools in Hong Kong. Findings of this study show similarities in preference for assignment type across students and parents. Between‐group discrepancies are observed in preference for homework involvement and endorsement of homework functions. Moreover, homework perceptions are found to relate to students’ and parents’ efficacy attributes and involvement behaviour. Findings of this study are discussed in light of the Chinese sociocultural context in Hong Kong. Suggestions are made on the design and use of homework in primary schools by incorporating the views of different stakeholders.     

Children's views on child abuse and neglect: findings from an exploratory study with Chinese children in Hong Kong

Objectives

This research study explored children's views on issues about child abuse in Hong Kong and examined their implications on child protection work and research in Chinese societies.

Method

Six primary schools were recruited from different districts of Hong Kong. Five vignettes of child maltreatment in the form of flash movies were presented to 87 children in 12 focus groups for discussion. The process was video-taped and the data were transcribed verbatim for data analysis by NUDIST.

Results

(1) Children do not have a homogeneous view on issues about child abuse and neglect, and their awareness and sensitivity to different kinds of child abuse are also different; (2) some of their views on child abuse and neglect are uniquely their own and are markedly different from those of adults; (3) some of the views expressed by children, however, are very much akin to those of adults, such as the factors they would consider in deciding whether a case is child abuse or not; (4) children's disclosure of abuse in Hong Kong is often affected by the Chinese culture in which they live, like filial piety and loyalty to parents.

Conclusion

Children's views on issues of child abuse and neglect, no matter they are the same or different from those of adults, serve to inform and improve child protection work. Children are not only victims in need of protection. They are also valuable partners with whom adult practitioners should closely work.

Practice implications

Children have, and are able to give, views on child abuse. They should be listened to in any child protection work no matter their views are same with or different from those of adults. As this study suggests, the relatively low sensitivity of the children to child neglect and sexual abuse, and their reluctance to disclose abuse and neglect due to their loyalty to parents are areas to focus on in preventive child protection work in a Chinese society like Hong Kong.     

Corporal punishment in schools: myths, problems and alternatives

In many countries, corporal punishment of school children continues to be an officially or unofficially sanctioned form of institutional child abuse. Continuing support for the use of corporal punishment is related to the following factors: (1) widely held beliefs regarding the effectiveness of corporal punishment, (2) an unawareness of problems resulting from the use of physical punishment, and (3) a lack of knowledge about effective disciplinary alternatives. The purpose of this paper is threefold: One is to show that many of the beliefs are myths, e.g., corporal punishment is not needed to build character. The second purpose is to show that physical punishment can lead to more problems than it appears to solve, e.g., the punitive teacher is avoided, and thus, is not a positive factor in the child's education and development. The third purpose is to discuss two types of alternatives to punishment, the social learning approach and communication skills training. These positive methods of discipline not only enhance classroom behavior, but also facilitate learning. In an atmosphere free of abusing and demeaning acts and in a classroom characterized by positive mutual regard, teachers can maximize their effectiveness as teachers and students can maximize their effectiveness as learners.     

The education of new Chinese immigrant children in Hong Kong: challenges and opportunities

In describing the current status of the education of new Chinese immigrant children (NCIC) in Hong Kong and to provide data useful for designing new policies, this article highlights the region's rise of new Chinese immigrants and the characteristics of the NCIC. Challenges to improve access to and equity in education in Hong Kong, overall quality of education for the NCIC and future possibilities are discussed. Implications from other countries are also included.     

Invisible wounds: Corporal punishment in British schools as a form of ritual

This article examines a presumed historical association between corporal punishment and the British "ruling class," taking as data the elaborate forms of beating practiced at a well-known English fee-paying boarding school in the 1950s and here documented in detail. Analogies with other forms of ritual studied by anthropologists are considered, as well as the psychosexual dynamics of beating for both officiants and victims. The paper argues that ritual corporal punishment must be seen in retrospect as a clear case of child abuse that is both physical and sexual. Such rituals of authority, though virtually abolished in Britain, may well exist in a different form in present day residential institutions for children in some Third World countries that have borrowed from now outdated European practices.     

Corporal punishment and the pain provoked by the community of enquiry pedagogy in the university classroom

Abstract

Education for transformation and social justice calls for critical, reflective, imaginative and independent thinkers with enquiring minds and a strong sense of curiosity – the ends and means of what Jonathan Jansen calls a ‘pedagogy to disrupt’ and Gert Biesta a ‘pedagogy of interruption’. For this reason, I introduced an innovative pedagogy in some of my courses at the School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg – the internationally established ‘community of enquiry’ pedagogy. I report on how in an Ethics course the pedagogy opened up a space for undergraduate students to disclose their own experiences of corporal punishment in the schools where they were placed for teaching practice. The pedagogy made room for a critical incident to emerge that was painful for both tutors and students, but, as I argue, crucial for participation, inclusion and the demands of open-mindedness, critical thinking and also solidarity required in a deliberative democracy.     

Internationalisation and distance education: a Hong Kong case study

The accelerating globalisation of world economic relations has been paralleled by a progressive internationalisation of higher education, including the use of distance education. But the modification of distance education materials and the provision of local tutorial support are only rarely undertaken, despite the fact that in social science and the humanities such materials are culturally saturated. This Hong Kong case study in teacher education examines the issues, describes the opportunities and difficulties involved, and argues that cultural adaptation merits a higher priority than at present.     

The involvement of Hong Kong parents in the education of their children: a validation of the Parents' Attributions and Perception Questionnaire

This study describes the validation and interpretation of the Parents' Attributions and Perception Questionnaire (PAPQ) using confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch modelling to report both the construct validity and category structure of the scales in the questionnaire. The PAPQ was developed to reflect the proposal that parents mediate the relationship between their children's social and psychological development, and their academic achievement, within the context of Hong Kong. The questionnaire consists of four subscales that reflect different interactions between parents and their children in relation to their children's academic‐related activities, including a Parental Attributions Scale, Parental Beliefs of Working Memory Scale, Parental Home and School Involvement Scale, and Parental Academic Expectations Scale. These subscales were supplemented by a fifth subscale that describes parents' socio‐economic background. The PAPQ was administered to 215 parents from four schools in Hong Kong. Results showed that the four subscales of the PAPQ are valid and reliable unidimensional measures of constructs related to parental role in the academic achievement of their children, thereby enabling future research to directly test Vygotsky's hypothesis.     

Student behaviour and emotional challenges for teachers and parents in Hong Kong

Social, emotional, and behavioural disorders of children, within the context of a whole‐school approach to inclusion as adopted by Hong Kong, can be challenging for teachers and parents. Based on a comprehensive review of the literature and feedback from a range of experts and parent groups in Hong Kong, specific scales were developed to measure four behavioural traits identified in local school‐aged children and the impact these have on their teachers and parents. Completed surveys were obtained from 914 members of school staff and 573 parents of school‐aged children. This research, carried out by Chris Forlin and Paul Cooper of the Hong Kong Institute of Education, led to the identification of substantial levels of student behavioural problems in relation to educational engagement, motivation, co‐operativeness and oppositionality. Evidence of emotional burden from these problems was also identified on parents and teachers. Discussion focuses on areas of potential stress in the school situation and possible points of influence in the home.     

Child abuse and physical punishment of children in Finland

This study looks at child abuse as a part of family violence and includes a literature review of the previous Finnish studies on child abuse. The data of the study comes from a poll conducted in Finland in the autumn of 1981 of 530 of the Finnish population older than 14 years of age: 3% of respondents had observed physical violence towards small children and 1% towards teenagers; 44% of the respondents were of the opinion that physical punishment of children was needed at least on certain occasions. In Sweden the corresponding percentage was only 26. The majority of Finns (60%), however, was in favor of a special law to ban all child abuse and physical punishment of children as was done in Sweden in 1979. The recommendation of the author, based on both theoretical consideration and the poll results is that such a law would be helpful in advancing the wellbeing of children.     

Effects of a phonological awareness program on English reading and spelling among Hong Kong Chinese ESL children

This study investigated the effects of a 12-week language-enriched phonological awareness instruction on 76 Hong Kong young children who were learning English as a second language. The children were assigned randomly to receive the instruction on phonological awareness skills embedded in vocabulary learning activities or comparison instruction which consisted of vocabulary learning and writing tasks but no direct instruction in phonological awareness skills. They were tested on receptive and expressive vocabulary, phonological awareness at the syllable, rhyme and phoneme levels, reading, and spelling in English before and after the program implementation. The results indicated that children who received the phonological awareness instruction performed significantly better than the comparison group on English word reading, spelling, phonological awareness at all levels and expressive vocabulary on the posttest when age, general intelligence and the pretest scores were controlled statistically. The findings suggest that phonological awareness instruction embedded in vocabulary learning activities might be beneficial to kindergarteners learning English as a second language.     

Executive functioning and word reading in Hong Kong Chinese children: A 1-year longitudinal perspective

This study examined the bidirectionality between kindergarten children's executive functioning (EF) and word reading across two time points. Participants were 523 Hong Kong Chinese-speaking children (mean age at Time 2 = 64.59 months; 52.9% male) and their parents. At Time 1, children were administered the measures of EF skills: inhibitory control, attention shifting, working memory and Chinese word reading. They were reassessed with these measures at Time 2 one year later. Results from the cross-lagged panel model revealed that, controlling for child age, gender and parental education levels, children's word reading at Time 1 was significantly predictive of their working memory at Time 2, but that the three EF skills at Time 1 were not predictive of word reading at Time 2. These findings underscored the role of early word reading in promoting children's working memory.     

Chinese children with ASD in Hong Kong (SAR): development of inclusive practice

The advancement of inclusive educational provision in the Asia‐Pacific region has been guided by international research. As one example, Hong Kong has developed a unique and cultural response to inclusive practice within the region. This paper reviews Hong Kong's development of inclusive education practice for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It provides an account of how services in education have developed for Chinese children with ASD, from diagnosis to school placement, and how the students are supported. A number of challenges for the region are discussed including those related to pedagogy, mentoring, placement, support and the need for culturally appropriate professional learning.     

Self-esteem: A cross-cultural comparison of British-Chinese,White British and Hong Kong Chinese children

Total raw self-esteem scores of 1303 children, including Chinese children in Britain and Hong Kong and White British, were assessed by using the Self-esteem Inventory developed by Coopersmith (1967). Across all samples, the results show little differences between children of different ages, whereas statistically significant differences occur in the independent variables of ethnic groups, gender and educational aspiration. Despite the social disadvantages that the UK Chinese may face, they have significantly higher self-esteem than their Hong Kong Chinese counterparts, but have little differences from their White peers. This indicates that they are likely to have positive feelings and academic confidence in being themselves and as part of the host society. In contrast, Hong Kong children tend to have low levels of self-esteem, which may be caused by the more self-effacing and modest values in Chinese culture, a traditional authoritarian style of education or highly competitive pressures created by schools, families and society.     

我是中国人——香港回归以来国民教育发展述评

由于长期的殖民历史,香港回归后国民教育备显特殊和重要。在过去十余年里,香港以"我是中国人"为指向,从认知、情感和实践三个层面,从课程、经费、资源、研究与教师等角度制定政策,采取课程与学科教学、校内外活动渗透、师资培养、发动民间组织力量等举措,深入而广泛地开展了国民教育,增进了香港青少年学生的国民身份认同。     

Keepers of the sacred flame: patriotism,politics and the Chinese history subject community in Hong Kong

Chinese history (a subject entirely separate and distinct from ‘history’) has long been the most politically sensitive subject in Hong Kong's school curriculum. Previous studies have analysed the policies of the colonial and postcolonial Governments towards this subject. Here, we examine the role played by the Chinese history subject community (comprising teachers, academics and officials in the Government's educational bureaucracy), and look at the way in which this has operated as an autonomous interest group. We conclude that the influence of this subject community has been a key factor limiting the extent to which the local educational authorities have been able to develop a coherent policy in relation to history education in general, and the teaching of national history in particular. Specifically, advocates of the maintenance of Chinese history as a separate subject within the school curriculum have been able, by associating themselves with the post‐1997 agenda of ‘patriotic education’, to effectively hoist the local educational bureaucracy with its own petard.