The Concept of Readiness in the Academic Department: A Case Study of Undergraduate Education Reform

While there has been emphasis on the institution and individual classroom as loci of learning and reform, less attention has been paid to the academic department. However, precisely because its structure is so endemic to institutions of higher education, the academic department may be the most logical and potent site for change. Using a case study approach, this paper examines the conditions under which change in undergraduate education takes hold and flourishes in the academic department, advances the concept of readiness, and explores its implications for those who wish to promote change in the department. Virginia S. Lee  is managing member and consultant, Virginia S. Lee & Associates, LLC, a consulting firm specializing in teaching, learning, and assessment in higher education. She received her B.A. from Smith College, her M.B.A. from New York University, and her Ph.D. from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Special interests include the design and implementation of institution-wide curriculum reform efforts, course and curriculum design, inquiry-guided learning, intensive learning, outcomes-based assessment, and the scholarship of teaching and learning. Michael R. Hyman  is Director of Graduate Programs and Associate Professor in the Department of Microbiology at North Carolina State University. He received his B.S. from University College, London, his M.B.A. from Oregon State University, and his Ph.D. from Bristol University. His major research interest is the biodegradation of environmental pollutants. Geraldine Luginbuhl  is Interim Department Head and Professor in the Department of Microbiology at North Carolina State University. She received her B.S. from Stanford University and her Ph.D. from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has a longstanding interest in undergraduate education and, recently, inquiry-guided learning.     

FROM “EXPLORING THE MIDDLE ZONE” TO “CONSTRUCTING A BRIDGE”: EXPERIMENTING IN THE SPIRAL BIANSHI MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM

The spiral bianshi curriculum, an improvement on bianshi teaching developed by Gu (2000) and in line with Marton’s theory of variation (Marton & Booth, 1997), was tried out in a primary school in Hong Kong. This improved theoretical framework for the spiral bianshi curriculum comprises four types of bianshi problems—the inductive bianshi, the broadening bianshi, the deepening bianshi, and the applicative bianshi. Based on this framework, the research team developed a set of teaching materials on the three topics of division of fraction, speed, and volume. The materials were tried out in 21 Primary 6 classes (a total of 686 students) in a school. The effect was compared with a reference group using standard textbook materials in Hong Kong. A series of instruments, pre-tests, and post-tests were administered to gauge the effects on students’ performance in solving routine and non-routine problems, as well as the affective outcomes including self-concept, attitude towards learning mathematics, approaches to learning, and conceptions of mathematics. The intervention effects of the experimental design were examined by hierarchical regression analysis. The research reveals that students using spiral bianshi teaching materials performed significantly better than their counterparts using standard textbook materials. However, no significant differences were identified among affective learning outcome variables despite the positive results on cognitive learning outcomes. The findings indicate that spiral bianshi curriculum has high potential in enhancing students’ learning effectiveness. However, further studies are needed to map its strengths in detail.     

Students as change partners: A proposal for educational change in the age of globalization

This essay builds on the concept of students as partners in change proposed in The Fourth Way: The Inspiring Future for Educational Change by Andy Hargreaves and Dennis Shirley (2009) and points out why the current movement toward curriculum standardization and homogenization is counterproductive in preparing students to become competent citizens for the globalized world. Instead, the author suggests that education systems and schools should focus on students as the driving force of educational change. To do so, we need to view students as global entrepreneurs in the sense that they need to become owners of their own learning and develop a globally-oriented entrepreneurial spirit.     

Life in the Hive: Supporting Inquiry into Complexity Within the Zone of Proximal Development

Research into students’ understanding of complex systems typically ignores young children because of misinterpretations of young children’s competencies. Furthermore, studies that do recognize young children’s competencies tend to focus on what children can do in isolation. As an alternative, we propose an approach to designing for young children that is grounded in the notion of the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky 1978) and leverages Activity Theory to design learning environments. In order to highlight the benefits of this approach, we describe our process for using Activity Theory to inform the design of new software and curricula in a way that is productive for young children to learn concepts that we might have previously considered to be “developmentally inappropriate”. As an illuminative example, we then present a discussion of the design of the BeeSign simulation software and accompanying curriculum which specifically designed from an Activity Theory perspective to engage young children in learning about complex systems (Danish 2009a, b). Furthermore, to illustrate the benefits of this approach, we will present findings from a new study where 40 first- and second-grade students participated in the BeeSign curriculum to learn about how honeybees collect nectar from a complex systems perspective. We conclude with some practical suggestions for how such an approach to using Activity Theory for research and design might be adopted by other science educators and designers.     

Teaching Environmental Education through PBL: Evaluation of a Teaching Intervention Program

If our chosen aim in science education is to be inclusive and to improve students’ learning achievements, then we must identify teaching methodologies that are appropriate for teaching and learning specific knowledge. Karagiorgi and Symeo (2005) remind us that instructional designers are thus challenged to translate the philosophy of constructivism into current practice. Thus, research in science education must focus on evaluating intervention programs which ensure the effective construction of knowledge and development of competencies. The present study reports the elaboration, application and evaluation of a problem-based learning (PBL) program with the aim of examining its effectiveness with students learning Environmental Education. Prior research on both PBL and Environmental Education (EE) was conducted within the context of science education so as to elaborate and construct the intervention program. Findings from these studies indicated both the PBL methodology and EE as helpful for teachers and students. PBL methodology has been adopted in this study since it is logically incorporated in a constructivism philosophy application (Hendry et al. 1999) and it was expected that this approach would assist students towards achieving a specific set of competencies (Engel 1997). On the other hand, EE has evolved at a rapid pace within many countries in the new millennium (Hart 2007), unlike any other educational area. However, many authors still appear to believe that schools are failing to prepare students adequately in EE (Walsche 2008; Winter 2007). The following section describes the research that was conducted in both areas so as to devise the intervention program.     

The Unconscious Fear of Success

The hidden cumculum has served the very useful purpose in educational discourse of alerting educators to the complexity of physical education teaching and learning. However, the ambiguity of the phenomena the term attempts to describe has led to a certain notoriety, and there is now considerable confusion over the meaning of the term hidden curriculum. This paper reviews selected studies of the hidden curriculum in physical education and other literature. The aim of this review is to assess its potential for helping us to better understand physical education as a cultural practice. Building on this review, it is suggested that the terms discourse and ideology locate the hidden agendas of physical education teaching and learning within the realm of communication and meaning making. The implications of this perspective for physical education teaching and research are examined. It is suggested in conclusion that the more precise identification of the hidden curriculum as an aspect of communication and meaning making is important, given new pressures deriving from mass media and popular culture that impact on physical education teaching and learning in subtle ways.     

Embodying emotions: making transactions explicit in science learning contexts

In this Forum paper we synthesize some of the main ideas from three papers: Auli Orlander and Per-Olof Wickman’s (Cult Stud Sci 6, 2011), Bodily experiences in secondary school biology, Roger Sages’ (Cult Stud Sci Educ 6, 2011), About Descartes: Uses and misuses, and Steve Alsop’s (Cult Stud Sci Educ 6, 2011), The body bites back! These papers challenged us to identify how emotions functioned as elements of bodily experiences in classroom transactions and why science teachers often are not responsive to students’ emoting. We also explored how teachers making use of curriculum and companion meanings could support the construction of learning environments that more productively support students’ science learning.     

The nature and development of middle school mathematics teachers’ knowledge

In this article, we report on the use of a teacher profiling instrument with 62 middle school teachers at the start of a 3-year professional learning programme. The instrument was designed to assess the aspects of teachers’ knowledge identified by Shulman (1987) refined by Ball et al. (2008) and extended to include teachers’ confidence to use and teach various topics in the middle school mathematics curriculum and their beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning. Based on a hierarchical coding of items, the application of the partial credit Rasch model revealed that the profile items were measuring a single underlying construct and suggested that the various facets of teacher knowledge develop together. We describe the characteristics of four levels of the hierarchical construct measuring teacher knowledge and understanding for teaching mathematics in the middle years of schooling, and discuss the unique affordances of a holistic view of teacher knowledge in contrast to considerations of multiple knowledge categories.     

Infusion or confusion: A meta–analysis of Environmental Education in the 21st century curriculum of Botswana

The purpose of this article is to examine the integration of environmental education (EE) in the secondary school curriculum of Botswana. In order to achieve effective environmental literacy, EE needs to be integrated into all aspects of students’ learning experience. The article draws on a variety of qualitative meta-analyses of Botswana government documents and journal articles, published between 2002 and 2012. Although EE is integrated primarily in social studies and science subjects, the findings suggested that it is in a state of confusion due to ineffective professional development of teachers and neglect of educational authorities. Teachers at the secondary level rarely include EE because students are not tested on it. The study suggested that teachers’ values towards EE, subject flexibility, integration and child-centred learning should be enhanced as strategies for halting the confusion of its infusion into the curriculum     

Ask Systems: interrogative access to multiple ways of thinking

The purpose of this paper is to familiarize instructional designers and researchers with a useful design and research paradigm known as “Ask Systems.” Ask Systems are interrogative interfaces to information and learning environments that model conversations with a skilled, reflective practitioner (Sch?n, The reflective practitioner, 1983) or teacher. By selecting questions to answer, users access information or scaffolds that help them to solve a problem, perform a task, or comprehend domain knowledge. Ask Systems are potentially effective for designing interactive learning systems because question asking is one of the most fundamental skills in learning that affects comprehension and problem solving (Graesser et al., in: Britton and Graesser (eds.) Models of understanding text, 1996b; Graesser et al., Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 3:235–241, 1992). By selecting questions to answer, students may also learn how to generate their own meaningful questions, because the quality of student-generated questions is strong predictor of domain knowledge and problem solving (Graesser and Olde, Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3):524–536, 2003). Ask Systems are demonstrated that represent a variety of learning and task structures, including frequently asked questions, problem solving, metacognition, causal understanding, and multiple perspectives. Although empirical research on Ask Systems is very limited, they appear to represent a potentially effective paradigm for designing instruction and conducting research in a variety of learning environments.     

In-service Initial Teacher Education in the Learning and Skills Sector in England: Integrating Course and Workplace Learning

The aim of the paper is to advance understanding of in-service learning and skills sector trainee teachers’ learning and propose ways of improving their learning. A conceptual framework is developed by extending Billett’s (International Journal of Educational Research 47:232–240, 2008) conceptualisation of workplace learning, as a relationally interdependent process between the opportunities workplaces afford for activities and interactions and how individuals engage with these, to a third base of participation, the affordances of the initial teacher education course. Hager and Hodkinson’s (British Educational Research Journal 35:619–638, 2009) metaphor of ‘learning as becoming’ is used to conceptualise the ways trainees reconstruct learning in a continuous transactional process of boundary crossing between course and workplace. The findings of six longitudinal case studies of trainees’ development, and evidence from other studies, illustrate the complex interrelationships between LSS workplace affordances, course affordances and trainee characteristics and the ways in which trainees reconstruct learning in each setting. The experience of teaching and interacting with learners, interactions with colleagues, and access to workplace resources and training are important workplace affordances for learning. However, some trainees have limited access to these affordances. Teaching observations, course activities and experiences as a learner are significant course affordances. Trainees’ beliefs, prior experiences and dispositions vary and significantly influence their engagement with course and workplace affordances. It is proposed that better integration of course and workplace learning through guided participation in an intentional workplace curriculum and attention to the ways trainees choose to engage with this, together with the use of practical theorising has the potential to improve trainee learning.     

Integrating Web 2.0 Across the Curriculum

For many years, educators have touted the benefits of learning with educational tools such as spreadsheets and databases that allow students to actively process and manipulate information (Jonassen, 1995). Hundreds if not thousands of Web 2.0 tools have been created in the last few years, taking the “technology as tool” metaphor to a new level. In this article, selected Web 2.0 tools are aligned with major content areas to illustrate by example the wide reach of Web 2.0 across the curriculum.     

Learning by Interest: Experiences and Commitments in Lives with Dance and Crafts

In this article we intend to contribute to the understanding of interest-driven learning which occurs when people find and choose an interest of their own. This engagement continues over a long time and includes development and learning. The empirical material consists of 14 learning stories written by experienced and skilled informants in folk dance and different crafts. The purpose is to illuminate the diversity and complexity of learning and meaning the informants assign to dance or crafts. This is what we consider to be the perspective of learning by interest. We also argue for the importance of understanding learning by interest as embedded in cultural heritage and social and cultural changes. Theoretically, we draw on John Dewey (1913/2009; 1934/2005). Learning folk dance or crafts is largely a question of learning by doing, which makes experience important. The interest and effort involved can in our interpretation be understood as experiences where expressions of commitment are embedded. The empirical analysis highlights three emphases in this illumination of the learning process. The first considers the individual development of skill in relation to broadened learning of collective tasks. The second perspective focuses on the interplay between learning in a life course and significant learning experiences. The third concerns the interplay between personal meaning and craftsmanship. In sum, this paper contributes to the understanding of learning by interest as a useful concept. In the final discussion we expand our perspective since the contrast is obvious between learning by interest and interpretations of the contemporary society, where individualization and lack of commitment is stressed.     

Revitalization of the shared commons: education for sustainability and marginalized cultures

Education for sustainability provides a vision for revitalizing the environmental commons while preserving cultural traditions and human rights. What happens if the environmental commons is shared by two politically disparate and conflicting cultures? As in many shared common lands, what happens if one culture is dominant and represents a more affluent society with more resources and educational opportunities? In the case of the Tal and Alkaher study (Cult Stud Sci Edu, 2009), asymmetric power differences between the dominant Israeli society and the minority Arab population yielded different environmental narratives and perceptions of students involved in learning about a mediated conflict in national park land. Similarly, marginalized indigenous cultures in Malawi, Africa share common lands with the dominant European landowners but have distinctly different environmental narratives. Although indigenous ways of living with nature contribute to the sustainability of the environment and culture, African funds of knowledge are conspicuously absent from the Eurocentric school science curriculum. In contrast, examples of experiential learning and recent curriculum development efforts in sustainability science in Malawi are inclusive of indigenous knowledge and practices and are essential for revitalizing the shared commons.     

Relationships between Hong Kong students’ perceptions of the learning environment and their learning patterns in post-secondary education

The present study aims to analyse the complex relationships between the relevant constructs of students’ demographic background, perceptions, learning patterns and (proxy measures of) learning outcomes in order to delineate the possible direct, indirect, or spurious effects among them. The analytical methodology is substantively framed against the studies of Richardson (British Journal of Educational Psychology 76:867–893, 2006, Higher Education 54:385–416, 2007) that utilised a regression-based methodology to infer the possible causal relationships among the relevant learning constructs. A composite research instrument, written in Chinese and derived from the Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) and the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), was used to collect students’ feedback on their perceptions of the learning environment and their learning patterns. Valid responses were obtained from 1,572 students studying at six institutions in the post-secondary education sector in Hong Kong, a new response-context for both the CEQ and the ILS. In adapting the research instruments to a new Chinese response-context, the findings are generally consistent with those reported in other published works (e.g. no relationship between students’ demographic background and their satisfaction with the programme, and a significant relationship between students’ exhibition of undirected learning patterns and low expected performance), but there are also some noteworthy discrepancies. The findings therefore buttress the confidence with which an ILS-based General Theoretical Model of student learning, adapted from Richardson (British Journal of Educational Psychology 76:867–893, 2006, Higher Education 54:385–416, 2007), may be used to conceptualise and interpret the dynamics of variation across different cultural response-contexts. While the CEQ provides some valuable complementary insights, it is an instrument that requires further development in the response-context of the present study.     

A scaffolding framework to support the construction of evidence-based arguments among middle school students

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach in which students in small groups engage in an authentic, ill-structured problem, and must (1) define, generate and pursue learning issues to understand the problem, (2) develop a possible solution, (3) provide evidence to support their solution, and (4) present their solution and the evidence that supports it (Barrows, How to design a problem-based curriculum for the preclinical years. Springer Publishing, New York, 1985). However, research has shown that novice problem-solvers and learners without deep content knowledge have difficulty developing strong evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313–350, 1998a; Reiser, J Lear Sci 13(3):273–304, 2004). In this paper, we discuss the components of (e.g., claims and evidence) and processes of making (e.g., define problem and make claim) evidence-based arguments. Furthermore, we review various scaffolding models designed to help students perform various tasks associated with creating evidence-based arguments (e.g., link claims to evidence) and present guidelines for the development of computer-based scaffolds to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments.

Assessing primary school student-teachers’ pedagogic implementations in child sexual abuse protection education

Teacher-educators need ways of assessing the adequacy of university curriculum and the extent to which student-teachers meet learning objectives. One potentially useful tool is Anderson and Krathwohl’s (Addison Wesley Longman, New York, 2001) theoretical framework, which can be applied to assess student-teachers’ knowledge types and their cognitive processes in critical pre-service curriculum areas such as child sexual abuse and personal safety. This study aims to illustrate the use of Anderson and Krathwohl’s framework in assessing student-teachers’ learning of pedagogies in relation to child sexual abuse and personal safety. Participants were a final year cohort of 122 Bachelor of Education (Primary School) students at an Australian university. Student-teachers’ essays regarding the pedagogical practices that they would implement in teaching about child sexual abuse and personal safety were content analysed using Anderson and Krathwohl’s framework. Pedagogies identified by the student-teachers were unevenly distributed across the cells within the theoretical framework. Well-represented pedagogies tended to reflect mid-level cognitive processes (those of understand, apply, and analyse), and low to mid-level knowledge types (those of factual, conceptual, and procedural). Under-represented were pedagogies reflecting higher-level cognition such as creating (in all four knowledge types) and evaluation (of factual and conceptual knowledge). The findings provide a basis for assessing the adequacy of current university teacher-education curriculum structures. Student-teachers’ understandings of under-used theoretical and pedagogical strategies can be identified as a guide to enhance their cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions. This study illustrates a method that has applicability as a diagnostic and assessment tool across a wide range of pre-service teacher education curriculum areas.     

“评测使用论证”框架对语言课程建设的启示

语言课程建设的理论历来把"评估"视为其必要环节之一,重视"评估"对整个过程的影响。Graves从社会教育情境视角提出了语言课程建设是由"计划"、"开展"和"评估"三个相互影响的环节组成的动态模式。这克服了之前"自上而下的专家模式"的不足,但是三个环节的动态循环、相互决定又给实际的课程建设和教学开展带来困难,难以保证教学开展的连贯性;各个环节的分工模糊、职能混乱;在课程建设的实践中可操作性不强。Bachman的"评测使用论证"框架(AUA)旨在指导语言"评测"的开发及其使用的合理性。鉴于语言课程建设和语言测试的理论都关注"评估"、"评测"效果的有益性和对课程建设的意义,文章在分析语言课程建设理论不足的基础上探讨AUA框架对于语言课程建设的启示。