Social Interaction in Same and Cross Gender Preschool Peer Groups: a participant observation study

About a third of play groups observed in a part‐time and full‐time early childhood centre were of mixed gender and two‐thirds were same gender. Mixed gender groups were larger than same gender groups and kindergarten (part‐time) groups were larger than childcare (full‐time) centre groups. In the kindergarten, outdoor play was much more common and there was a significant difference in boys preferring to play outdoors, followed by mixed groups and then girls. In both centres boisterous play was more likely in boys’ groups than girls’ groups, with mixed groups more similar to boys’ groups in the predominance of boisterous play. Boys’ groups in both centres exclusively used male themes for pretend play, while girls mostly used female themes and an occasional male theme. Mixed gender groups used male themes almost as much as male groups, but rarely or never used female themes. There was more physical conflict and rejection in mixed groups, than boys’ groups and none in girls’ groups in the kindergarten. There was more adult involvement in girls’ groups than in boys'groups in both centres, but mixed groups had an intermediate amount in the kindergarten and slightly more than girls in the childcare centre. Boys enjoyed noisy, rough and tumble play, competition for dominance, stereotyped male themes and sometimes actively rejected the presence of the researcher. Girls preferred quiet adult‐structured table activities and supportive conversations over activities with peers and adults. While there were examples of successful cross‐gender co‐operative play, there were also examples of the breakdown of reciprocity due to contrasting styles of play.     

Single‐sex schooling: is it simply a ‘class act’?

The current debate about boys education risks taking us back decades in terms of understanding the significance of gender in relation to education. Of particular concern here is the tendency within such debates to rely on dichotomous understandings of gender which reinscribe essentialist understandings of both ‘girls’ and ‘boys’. In this way, the so‐called gender wars construct a climate whereby difference between the categories obfuscates difference within each. Here this issue is explored most specifically in relation to access to higher education and the possible impact of single‐sex schooling. Current debates surrounding boys' experience of schooling have refreshed interest in the possible benefits of single‐sex education, particularly for boys. Schools are establishing single‐sex classes for boys and in some cases parallel education (the provision of single‐sex facilities for girls and boys at the same campus) is being promoted as a way forward. In this paper we examine data from Australia's largest and most diverse university in order to explore the relationship between single‐sex schooling and access to higher education in ways which account for difference based primarily on school sector and socio‐economic status. In these terms, if single‐sex schooling is beneficial for boys we need to consider which boys are benefiting and at whose expense.     

Girls’ Groups as a Component of Anti‐sexist Practice—one primary school's experience

The gender project I have been involved in was a practical response to theoretical concerns regarding the impact of the hidden curriculum and sex stereotyping in primary schools. The aim of the project was primarily to improve the level of achievement of the girls. Equally important was a desire to broaden curriculum experience into non‐stereotypical areas for both boys and girls. Unlike similar projects, Preston School's single sex groups were monitored throughout their duration. Consequently there are substantially more data on the attitudes of teachers, girls and boys towards gender than are normally available for such projects. This article constitutes an attempt by one of the teachers involved to evaluate the efficacy of Preston School's initiative within a theoretical framework that explores the wider issues of gendered subjectivity, male sexism and female self‐depreciation.     

Effects of single‐sex versus co‐educational classes and schools on gender differences in progress in language and mathematics achievement

In this study, the effects of single‐sex versus co‐educational classes and schools on the progress in language and mathematics of boys and girls at the end of the second year of secondary education are investigated. Data from the Longitudinaal Onderzoek Secundair Onderwijs project are used. Multilevel analyses were carried out on a sample of approximately 4000 pupils, 330 classes (190 single‐sex), 180 teachers and 50 schools (20 single‐sex). The results indicate that for boys the gender composition of the classes has more impact than the gender composition of the schools, whereas for girls the gender composition of the schools is more important. Boys make more progress for language (and not for mathematics) in co‐educational classes even after we have taken into account the selective nature of the classes. Girls, on the other hand, make more progress for mathematics (but not for language) in single‐sex than in co‐educational schools.     

Do Boys or Girls Make Better Reading Tutors? An Empirical Study to Examine Children's Effectiveness as Tutors Using the Pause,Prompt and Praise Procedures

This study aimed to assess the effects of single‐sex and cross‐gender pairings in the context of the ‘pause, prompt and praise’ procedures for improving reading, the effects of boys as tutors compared with girls as tutors and those of choice in sex of tutor. Four groups were involved in the study: boys tutoring boys, girls tutoring girls, girls tutoring boys and boys tutoring girls. The tutees were 24 Year 7 pupils and the tutors were 24 Year 10 pupils from a large suburban comprehensive school in the Midlands of England. The reading age of each of the tutees was measured both before and after the intervention so that gains in reading age could be evaluated. The results showed that peers could be successfully trained to use the pause, prompt and praise techniques and that these were effective in raising the reading standards of tutees in all four groups. However, little evidence was found to suggest that any of the pairings was any more successful than the others or that the sex of the tutor had any significant effect on the tutoring outcome. On the other hand, however, there was some evidence that choice of tutor sex might have an effect on gains in tutee's measured reading ages     

Boys as only‐children and girls as only‐children—parental gendered expectations of the only‐child in the nuclear Chinese family in present‐day China

Studies on the effect of only‐child status on girls’ education indicate that the only‐child policy has had an unintended consequence of engendering a child‐centered culture with a strong belief and shared interest among the urban community in educating the only‐child regardless of the child’s sex. As the distribution of education by sex is frequently argued to be a key determinant for gender inequality, this finding seems to carry an unquestioned message that gender equality has been largely achieved for the only‐child generation. So far, however, few studies have examined parental gender‐specific expectations for their only children as an important factor in preparing boys and girls for their different school and social experiences. Based on data collected through semi‐structured interviews with 20 families in north China, this paper explores parental gender‐specific expectations of their only‐children. Parents’ SES is also considered in order to see how class may interact with gender in parents’ expectations for boys and girls as only‐children. The study reveals patterns of differences in parental expectations based on gender, and to a lesser degree, class. The author argues that it would be over‐optimistic to believe that only‐child status and the equally high academic aspirations parents hold for boys and girls have done away with all the deep‐rooted factors against gender equality in Chinese society. Drawing on Bourdieu’s social theory, the author discusses the implications of the findings and provides suggestions for policy efforts and further research.     

School Subject Preferences of Pupils in Single Sex and Co‐educational Secondary Schools

Rankings of school subject preferences were obtained from 321 male and 327 female pupils aged 11‐12 years, and 245 male and 240 female pupils aged 15‐16 years, from both single sex and co‐educational secondary schools. Overall rank orders showed an effect of school type for younger pupils only, in which evidence for less gender stereotyping of school subjects in single sex schools was found. The rankings of the older pupils, while not affected by school type, did show a clear effect of gender, with higher rankings being given to mathematics, science and physical education by boys and to art by girls.     

Bullying in Mixed Sex Groups of Children

A sample of 192 8‐ to 10‐year‐old children were asked in individual interviews to say which classmates bully other pupils and who they selected as victims. They were provided with a well‐known definition of bullying devised by Olweus. Test‐retest reliability of bully nominations was shown to be good. The data were analysed to reveal the number of male and female victims of male and female children viewed by their peers as bullies. Consistent with previous research, many boys were shown to bully an appreciable number of girls and boys, but they selected significantly more same‐sex than other‐sex victims. However, our finding that there was not a significant difference in the number of same‐sex and other‐sex children selected as victims by girls was not consistent with the results of earlier studies. Thus, more boys may be bullied by girls than has been suggested by the extant literature.     

Gender and school choice: factors influencing parents when choosing single‐sex or co‐educational independent schools for their children

This paper explores factors influencing parents' choices of single‐sex or co‐educational schools in the independent sector. In doing so, it explores two relatively under‐researched aspects of school choice by focusing upon gender and upon the middle classes. The paper draws upon research conducted in three independent schools—a boys' school, a girls' school and a co‐educational school. Data were generated via questionnaires (225 responses) and semi‐structured interviews (15 sets of parents). The findings suggest that the reputation and exam results of schools are key features guiding parents' school choices. However, whether a school is single‐sex or co‐educational is an important factor for many parents. Furthermore, the long‐held view that single‐sex education has advantages (especially academic) for girls, whilst co‐education has advantages (especially social) for boys, still prevails.     

Gender Context of the Elementary School: sex differences in affective outcomes

This paper examines single‐ and mixed‐sex elementary schooling in its effects upon the well‐being of girls and boys. Well‐being is defined in terms of adaptation to school life as reflected by affective characteristics such as self‐esteem, sense of mastery, stress, fear of failure, sense of belonging in school, study‐ and school commitment. Use was made of data concerning 2095 sixth‐grade pupils‐‐1130 boys and 965 girls‐‐in 60 private elementary schools. The results indicate that it is not the gender composition of the pupil population in se that exerts an influence but the gender composition of the teaching staff. Particularly, it is found that primary school boys are negatively affected by a school environment characterised by a preponderance of female teachers. Girls do not seem to be affected by the gender organisation of the school.     

Should computing be taught in single‐sex environments? An analysis of the computing learning environment of upper secondary students

It has been well established in the literature that girls are turning their backs on computing courses at all levels of the education system. One reason given for this is that the computer learning environment is not conducive to girls, and it is often suggested that they would benefit from learning computing in a single‐sex environment. The purpose of this study was to identify whether there were differences in perception between boys and girls and the type of school they attended. The College and university classroom environment inventory (CUCEI) was used as an instrument to measure the computing learning environment of 265 Year 12 and 13 secondary schools students in Wellington, New Zealand. The results showed that there were statistically significant differences in perceptions between sex, and between different types of school, and it is suggested that there may be a place for single‐sex computing classrooms in mixed‐sex schools.     

Single‐sex Education for Girls: heterosexuality,gendered subjectivity and school choice

Single‐sex education for girls constitutes a focal point around which issues of gender, choice and educational decision‐making coalesce. My concern is not to enter the debate about the merits of single‐sex education for girls per se, but to examine the relationship between discourses of femininity and discourses around single‐sex schooling to see how they interact in the choice of single‐sex schools by girls and their parents. In this paper, I explore the ways in which aspects of feminist poststructuralist theory can be used to offer a more dynamic and complex account of the processes of school choice than that assumed by neo‐liberal theorists. The theory I develop is illuminated by interviews with three girls and their parents, from different social‐class backgrounds, at the point at which they were making decisions about which secondary school to apply for. A focus such as this enables me to do two things: firstly, to develop a more adequate understanding of the relationship between gender and educational decision‐making; and secondly, to critique the underlying theory of instrumental rationality, and its relationship to school choice, which has underwritten the marketisation of education in Aotearoa/New Zealand.     

Young people's views of sex education: gender,information and knowledge

This paper derives from research that had the aim of understanding more about adolescents' views of sex education and adolescent sexuality. The data are taken from three separate pieces of research conducted in 1984, 1998 and 2003. This paper presents data about gender, information and knowledge relating to sexuality. It seeks to demonstrate that attitudes to information and knowledge vary significantly with gender. The data suggest that many adolescents we studied were offered different access to information about sex and sexuality in their families. The argument is that this has impact on the sources of information that they rely upon and prefer. We investigate the underlying issues about the ways boys obtain not only information about sex, but also their attitudes to sexual encounters. Sources of information and counselling about sexuality varied with gender. Boys and girls were exposed to different kinds of experience, in which information about sexuality and messages about desire also vary. Home and intimacy with parents, especially mothers, is important for many, although not all, girls in a way it is not for boys. This indicates a picture of boys learning about sex and sexuality in ways that by and large do not include adults, or more especially trusted adults, and where there appears to be some elements of exclusion from the family. This has important implications for sex education programmes, and may offer us insights into why the boys resist school sex education work.     

Intergenerational transmission of gender segregation: How parents’ occupational field affects gender differences in field of study choices

The study explores how parents’ occupational field affects gender differences in educational fields. On the one hand, the theory of direct transfer predicts that adolescents enter fields similar to those of their parents because of intergenerational transmission of occupation‐specific resources and that adolescents are more likely to draw upon the resources provided by the higher‐status parent. On the other hand, the theory of sex‐role learning predicts that boys and girls are more likely to choose more gender‐stereotypical fields of study because they learn ‘appropriate’ gender‐role behaviour from their parents’ occupational field and that boys are more likely to learn this behaviour from their father and girls from their mother. We use longitudinal data collected from adolescents and their parents in the Netherlands (N = 2,497) and tested our hypotheses using multiple‐group structural equation modelling and multinomial regression analyses. In line with sex‐role learning, results show that especially mothers who are employed in a more feminine occupational field influence their daughters to enter a more feminine field of study (health, biology, agriculture and veterinary) and their sons to enter a more masculine field of study (science and technology). Mothers’ occupational field therefore not only influences girls’ field of study, but also boys’. This study highlights the role of horizontal characteristics when examining which field of study adolescents enter. Contrary to the stratification literature, which primarily focuses on fathers, this study concludes that mothers play a more important role in gender differences in fields of study.     

The media,marketing, and single sex schooling

The Australian media’s interest in education, as in many Anglophone countries, is frequently dominated by concerns about boys in schools. In 2002, in a country region of the Australian State of Queensland, this concern was evident in a debate on the merits of single sex schooling that took place in a small local newspaper. The debate was fuelled by the inclusion in this newspaper of an advertising brochure for an elite private girls’ school. The advertisement utilized the current concerns about boys in schools to advocate the benefits of girls’ only schools. Drawing on research that suggests that boys are a problem in school, and utilising a peculiar mix of liberal feminism alongside a neo‐liberal class politics, it implicitly denigrated the education provided by government co‐educational schools. The local government high and primary school principals, incensed at this advertisement, contacted the paper to refute many of its claims and assumptions and to assert the benefits, to both boys and girls, of their particular schools. A letters to the editor debate then followed an article representing these government school principals’ views. These letters were from two private school principals. This country newspaper thus became a medium through which various school principals engaged with the current boys’ debate, and research associated with it, in order to market their schools. This paper examines this particular newspaper debate and argues that, in the absence of nuanced, research based, and thoughtful policy responses to gender issues, many school policies on gender are being shaped through and by the media in ways that elide the complexities of the issues involved.     

Motivation and Attribution at Secondary School: The role of ethnic group and gender

Some 985 secondary school students completed a questionnaire as part of an investigation into the experiences of Asian girls in a secondary school arising out of a larger project concerned with motivational factors in educational attainment. Results indicated that (1) Asian girls enjoyed all aspects of school life as much or more than their non-Asian counterparts; (2) across both ethnic groups girls enjoyed all aspects of school except sports and clubs more than boys; (3) enjoyment of subjects followed sex stereotypical lines, irrespective of ethnicity: girls rated English, French, German, drama, music and home economics as significantly more enjoyable, and boys rated science, craft, design and technology, physical education, information technology and mathematics as more enjoyable; (4) irrespective of gender, Asian students reported more enjoyment of religious education, and lower enjoyment of drama, physical education and home economics; (5) irrespective of ethnic group, girls reported that there was not enough choice of subjects; and (6) Asian students of both sexes rated parents and friends as more important in contributing to academic success. These results are critiqued in a context that questions the desirability of conducting investigations such as this which dichotomise students into groups on the grounds of ethnicity.     

The Closing of the Gender Gap in Schooling: The case of Thailand

The results from the 1990 national census indicate that the long standing gender gap in educational attainment favouring boys over girls has closed in Thailand at all levels. This occurred as responses to generalized questions on attitudes about schooling for boys and girls on nationally representative surveys are showing a substantial reduction in the preference for educating sons more than daughters, although some preference for sons persists. Qualitative data from focus group discussions in rural areas reveal that parental views on gender and schooling are complex and do not operate uniformly to favour one sex over the other. Moreover, the changing socioeconomic context of schooling decisions in Thailand are likely to encourage parents to favour girls at least as much as boys in education. While gender inequality in schooling is no longer important, the socioeconomic level continues to influence starkly Thai children's chances for higher levels of education.     

Education and social justice: gender lessons of the past

In 1927 the Swedish grammar school opened up for girls. Thereby girls got access to higher education on the same conditions as boys, at least formally. Thus, many towns' boys and girls were seated in the same classroom. In the large cities, however, sex segregation remained, as separate grammar schools for girls were established and some boys' grammar schools were still reserved for boys. The main aim of this paper is to compare the process of gender construction in these different school forms during the period 1927–1960. The questions put are: Were the discourses and the discursive practices of these schools part of the politics of equality or the politics of difference with regard to gender? Which representations of gender and gendered patterns of communication and domination did they produce? The main data consists of interviews with 30 ex-students of coeducational schools and female and male single-sex schools. The conclusion is that the pedagogy in all school forms was inscribed within the meritocratic discourse of equality, which was also important in shaping the students' subjectives. Both girls and boys had to prove themselves worthy of the privilege of attending the grammar school, and in this respect girls as a group were more successful than boys. To begin with the politics of equality also operated in the norms for how girls should dress and look, but later on a discrete make-up was allowed. The politics of difference was manifest in the swot syndrome, the techniques for punishments and rewards, and also, at least partly, in physical education. It was also manifest in the traditional representations of masculinity and femininity, like the male breadwinner and the housewife, prevalent in boys' grammar schools. Girls in female single sex schools, on the other hand, were firmly determined to make a career of their own.     

Play and gender in Ontario kindergarten classrooms: implications for literacy learning

Research has highlighted the importance of early literacy development. In light of this, there has been a growing concern around boys’ underachievement on language and literacy assessments. Given the recent mandate for play-based learning in Ontario kindergartens, this paper examines children's literacy integration during play from a gender perspective. An analysis of 380 minutes of children's play revealed that girls and boys often played separately across the 12 kindergarten classrooms in this study. Importantly, the centres at which girls and boys played offered different literacy support. Our findings showed that gender played a salient role in children's play choices affecting the types of academic skills children practiced in their play. In this paper, we shed light on the need for gender awareness and sensitivity in policy mandates and teacher practice.     

Research report

The primary purpose was to investigate the efficacy of a full year of single‐sex (SS) teaching of science. The secondary aims were to locate any differentiation by set and gender, and to relate these to more proximal variables. Participants were 13 year olds. Higher set girls gave evidence of clear benefits overall, and higher set boys also, except in biology. Lower set pupils performed at or below expectations. Analyses of additional questionnaire and interview data pointed to further reasons for avoiding the making of unqualified generalizations about SS teaching. Pupil preferences for SS teaching were relevant, as were gender differences in attitudes to biology and physics. Qualitative data suggested higher set girls benefited from more learningrelated classroom interaction and less interference and exploitation of girls by boys in SS classes. Lower set pupils complained that SS teaching deprived them of social interaction with the other sex. The concluding suggestion was that SS teaching offers affordances of benefits when mixed‐sex teaching has specifiable disadvantages.