Categories in conflict: Combating the application of an intuitive conception of inheritance with category construction

The idea that characteristics acquired by an organism during its lifetime can be inherited by offspring and result in evolution is a substantial impediment to student understanding of evolution. In the current study, we performed a preliminary examination of how acquiring physical changes in a question prompt may differentially cue intuitive and scientific justifications of inheritance and evolution and how this varies based on how student learned the concept. Middle school students in a suburban northeastern district (N = 314) either learned about evolutionary change with a category construction task (with different levels of feedback support) or completed a worksheet. Three days later students responded to two free response scenarios (one where a physical change is acquired). Responses were coded based on student justifications for either science accuracy or intuitive nature. Specific reasons were coded by justification type with high inter-rater agreement (k > 0.93). Results showed that students were more likely to apply intuitive reasoning when a physical change was acquired (50%) than if the change was behavioral in nature (16%). Additionally, students who completed the category construction task provided significantly more scientifically accurate justifications about inheritance (M = 1.12) than control students (M = 0.47), and significantly less intuitive justifications (M = 0.67) than control (M = 1.13). Finally, category construction produced the most scientific reasoning when feedback was provided. Taken together, these results suggest that intuitive reasoning is differentially applied based on physical organismal changes, intuitive reasoning is less frequent when learning via category construction, and the category construction task is more effective for this population with the inclusion of feedback.     

Cognitive conflict: Its nature and use in the teaching of science

Summary The thrust of this article is that although different theories may share some of the same terminology they may differ considerably in the interpretation which they impose on it and, therefore, on the educational practices which they underwrite. Specifically a brief examination has been made here of the concept of cognitive conflict as it occurs in the theories of Bruner, Case and Piaget-Inhelder, and of the similarities and differences in classroom practices which arise from theoretical commitment.     

审美愉悦与感性经验

审美活动既离不开主体的感官感受,也离不开客体的具体可感的感性形式.审美活动总是通过人化了的感觉器官作用于对象的"可感受的形式"方可发生并正常运行,因此,审美活动须以感官感受-感性经验为基础、为起点、为途径.感官感受-感性经验虽不是审美活动的全部,却是它须臾不可脱离的,也是不可抛弃的.作为审美价值之基本品格的愉悦性,其中必然包含着感官愉快;但是,审美愉悦的感官愉快绝不是生理性的官能快感.     

Qualitative changes in intuitive biology

Recent studies on children’s intuitive biology have indicated that a form of autonomous biology is acquired early in childhood and that later qualitative changes occur within the domain. In this article we focus on two of such changes: (a) In predicting behaviors and attributing properties to an animate object, young children rely on the target’s similarity to people, whereas older children and adults use its category membership and category-behavior (or property) associations; and (b) The modes of explanation change from vitalistic to mechanistic. Whereas young children prefer vitalistic explanations, older children and adults like mechanistic explanations better. We present some experimental findings for these changes. We also indicate how social contexts induce or enhance conceptual change. We discuss three theo-retical issues: implications for conceptual change in biology, for conceptual change in general, and for biology instruction.     

法治与良知

健全的良各是真正的法治能够顺利地良性运作的社会心理基础法治的昌明要求社会活动主体形成与法治的精神实质相一致的,基于法律并以地法律的中卢诚为核心的法治良知。法治的推行必须以个人,社会和国家（政府）这些基本的社会活动主体具备起码的良知为前提条件与人格保障。     

The acquisition of biological knowledge during childhood: Cognitive conflict or tabula rasa?

Clinical interviews were conducted with three elementary school children, who varied in age but not in family or school environment, to determine the extent to which they held naive misconceptions about important biological topics and to determine agewise trends in the development of biological knowledge. Does early biological knowledge acquisition follow a pattern of spontaneous naive theory construction and cognitive conflict or does it follow a pattern of gradual accretion to an initially blank slate? Contrary to findings in the physical sciences, little evidence was found for biological “misconceptions” as knowledge acquisition appeared to more directly follow the gradual accretion hypothesis with the primary source of that knowledge adult authority rather than personal experience. However, “conceptual change teaching” is still advocated due to its ability to provoke students to consider and test alternative conceptions (even if they are not their own) as a means of encouraging the development of important general reasoning patterns utilized in the testing of causal hypotheses.     

The predictive power of intuitive rules: A critical analysis of the impact of `more A–more B' and `same A–same B'

In the international community of mathematics and science educators the intuitive rules theory developed by the Israeli researchers Tirosh and Stavy receives much attention. According to this theory, students' responses to a variety of mathematical and scientific tasks can be explained in terms of their application of some common intuitive rules. Two major intuitive rules are manifested in comparison tasks: ‘More A—more B’ and ‘Same A—same B’. In this paper, we address two important questions for which the existing literature on intuitive rules does not provide a convincing research-based answer: (1) are the reasoning processes of students who respond in line with a given intuitive rule actually affected by that rule or by essentially other misconceptions (leading to the same answer), and (2) are individual students consistent in their choice of one of the intuitive rules when confronted with different, conceptually unrelated tasks? A test consisting of five comparison problems from different mathematical subdomains was administered collectively to 172 Flemish students from Grades 10 to 12. An analysis of students' written calculations and justifications suggested that the students were considerably less affected by the intuitive rules than their multiple-choice answers actually suggested. Instead, essentially different misconceptions and errors were found. With respect to the issue of individual consistency, we found that students who made many errors did not answer systematically in line with one of the two intuitive rules.     

An analysis of intuitive and model-directed media-selection decisions

Media-selection decisions of 30 instructional development graduate students were studied under intuitive and model-directed decision-making conditions. Students were given three media-selection problems and were directed to select an appropriate medium for each problem and to write a rationale for the medium selected. The students used thier intuitions to select media for the first problem. They used a formal media selection process to select media for the other two problems. Results indicated that the proportion of students who made correct media selections when they used their intuition was not significantly different from the proportion who made correct selections the first time they used the formal selection process. The proportion of students who made correct selections the second time they used the formal process was significantly greater than the proportion who made correct selection decisions when using their intuition and when using the formal selection process the first time. Subsequent analysis, however, indicated that there was no correlation between the correct use of the formal selection process and making correct media-selection decisions. Implications for the design and use of formal media selection processes in instructional development are described. The authors appreciate the assistance provided by Gene Glass regarding the analysis and interpretation of the data reported in this study.     

麻茎秆打狼的教育规则——从一次师生课堂冲突谈起

教育工作者要对“麻茎秆打狼-两头儿害怕”的歇后语进行辩证分析,深刻理解其教育意义,冷静处理师生关系、教育关系中的各种矛盾和问题,取得理想的教育效果。     

论直觉思维与逻辑思维的相互关系

在人们解决问题的思维活动中，直觉思维和逻辑思维都发挥着作用，并且相互联系、相辅相成。如果把直觉思维和逻辑思维割裂开来或对立起来，对于解决问题、科学研究是不利的。通过对人们在解决问题的思维活动和科学研究活动中常见的三种解决问题的模式的分析，我们可以看到直觉思维和逻辑思维所起的作用以及它们之间的相互联系。     

Interaction of intuitive physics with computer-simulated physics

How do children solve force and motion problems in computer simulations without explicit knowledge of the underlying physics? This question was addressed by saving the keystroke input of 19 sixth-grade children in computer memory as each interacted with a simulated, frictionless object using Logo turtle-graphics. The keystroke sequences were first used to determine subject performance on the gamelike features of the simulation. A second analysis used the Newtonian structure of the program to investigate alternative methods for controlling turtle velocity. Five boys and five girls were interviewed during the simulation concerning the perceived relationship between keyboard input and turtle behavior. Subjects who could clearly state some keyboard effects did not score high on either computer analysis, yet achieved the most general solutions of the computer problem. They did so by exploring turtle behavior under a greater variety of conditions than the subjects who achieved partial solutions. For the successful subjects, the turtle was related by analogy to useful information from existing conceptions of motion.     

儿童人际冲突与自我调解冲突能力之我见

通过观察儿童日常行为,了解其在人际冲突情境下的行为表现,进而研究人际冲突与攻击行为的关系。本次研究主要包括三个方面：1．儿童人际冲突的主要特点;2．儿童自我调解冲突能力的发展特点;3．如何发展儿童调解冲突的能力？研究发现儿童之间发生的人际冲突频繁,但冲突时间较短,而且很少引起暴力攻击行为,随着年龄的增长,儿童自我调节冲突的能力也在不断的增强,发生在同辈之间的人际冲突是儿童发展调节冲突能力的最佳环境,教师在冲突应提供必要支持,促进儿童人际交往能力的发展。     

Scores and foreits — An intuitive model for integer arithmetic

In introducing pupils to directed numbers, the number line is often used as an intuitive model. The C.S.M.S. project, however, recommended that for the teaching of integer subtraction the number line should be abandoned. Here an alternative model is set up and presented to children. Their response over three lessons is described and their learning is assessed in a post-test. Their response and performance is compared to that of a similar group of children learning through a number line model. The two models are compared from practical and theoretical viewpoints.     

The development of an intuitive understanding of entropy

Previous studies of the concept of entropy have indicated that before 7 to 9 years of age, children have difficulty understanding the effects of randomizing forces and often predict highly improbable events, such as a return to the original ordered state. In the present research, 306 children between 3 and 11 years of age were asked directly whether undifferentiated forces, such as the wind or objects being thrown into the air, could create order or disorder in a set of objects. The results showed that even 4-year-olds are sensitive to the asymmetrical effects of such events. Older children apply this principle more consistently and are able to use it in explaining their answers.     

Cognitive conflict as a teaching strategy in solving chemistry problems: A dialectic–constructivist perspective

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of teaching experiments within a dialectic-constructivist framework based on the following considerations: (a) Cognitive conflicts used in the teaching experiments must be based on problem-solving strategies that students find relatively convincing: (b) after having generated a cognitive conflict, it is essential that the students be provided with an experience that could facilitate the resolution of the conflict; and (c) the teaching strategy developed is used by an interactive constructivist approach within an intact classroom. The study was based on two sections of freshman students who had registered for Chemistry I at the Universidad de Oriente, Venezuela. One of the sections was randomly designated as the control group and the other as the experimental group. To introduce cognitive conflict, the experimental group was exposed to two teaching experiments dealing with stoichiometry problems based on the concept of limiting reagent. Students in the control group were exposed to the same problems—however, without the cognitive conflict teaching experiments format. To evaluate the effect of the teaching experiments, both groups were evaluated on five different problems at different intervals during the semester, referred to as posttests. All posttests formed part of the regular evaluation of the students. Results obtained show the advantage of the experimental group on four of the posttests. It is concluded that the experimental treatment was effective in improving performance on the immediate posttests. It was observed that some students protect their core belief [see Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In I. Lakatos & A. Musgrave (Eds.), Criticism and the growth of knowledge (pp. 91–196). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press] in stoichiometry (establishing equivalent relations between different elements or compounds) by ignoring the conflicting data, just as conflicting (anomalous) data do not necessarily convince a scientist to abandon a particular theory.     

Autism and intuitive practice as the art of the prevailing middle

Jordan insists that teachers should be free to exercise their professionalism and that respect for difference is integral to that professionalism. For Connor, this implies teachers who can critically consider the discourses available to them as practitioners. The authors draw upon the philosophising of Gilles Deleuze to develop an account of teaching and learning as an autonomous creative process in which teachers contribute to rather than strictly control outcomes. This account of teaching as processual following resonates with Jordan's vision of equity for autistic or neuro‐atypical pupils and compassionate professionalism. It rests less easily with intensive behaviourist‐training programmes and educational cultures premised on the assumption that outcomes can, and should, be pre‐determined and precisely engineered. From a Deleuzian perspective, ethical practice is the interplay of conceptual, perceptual and affective knowledge, and it is suggested that intuitive practice involves a similar interplay along with numerous contextual considerations. A Deleuzian theory of simulation is initially outlined and accords with the emphasis placed by Jordan on reimagining an educational system in which all pupils are valued and supported to develop their varied talents and teachers are free to assess the suitability of particular methods for individual pupils.     

Causal attribution by sensing and intuitive types during diagnostic problem solving

Attempts by sensing and intuitive types to diagnose a malfunctioning industrial system by operating a computer-based data bank were compared in terms of (1) the extent of their causal attributions, and (2) their use of different information-gathering control operations. As predicted by Jungian type theory, intuitives made significantly more causal attributions to factors lying behind the immediately perceived malfunction (P<0.03). There were no significant differences between the two types' use of control operations. The implications of these findings for attribution theory, the theory of diagnostic error, and for the education of diagnosticians are discussed.     

网络语体风格的软规范与硬规范

语言规划研究是一种战略研究。网络语体风格的规范问题是语言规划必不可少的部分，但却是一个很少有人触及的领域。网络语体风格的表现是进行网络语体风格规范的基础，在此基础上，主要讨论网络语体风格软规范和硬规范的基础、理据和基本策略问题。并认为，语言的规范都应该分成两个部分，即软规范和硬规范。     

数理统计直观教学的实验设计与R程序实现

针对数理统计中关于格列汶科定理、正态抽样定理、点估计和区间估计在教学中的常见疑惑和问题进行讨论与分析,通过实验设计和R程序,以图形方式加以直观解决。该实验设计一方面促进了学生对于数理统计理论与方法的理解、提升了教学效果,另一方面也为R软件在教学上的应用提供一种思路。