An Activity Analysis of Secretarial Duties as a Basis for an Office Practice Course

The cognitive processes used by children during problem solving have received considerable attention in recent years. The identification of the processes used by both successful and unsuccessful problem solvers has been hampered by the difficulties involved in making accurate observations of mental processes which may or may not have physical manifestations during problem solving. In addition, problem solvers themselves often are unaware of many of the thought processes they use while attempting to solve problems. The most popularly used methods for studying problem solving processes are not sufficiently reliable or valid. This study explored the potential effectiveness of a new procedure for identifying and studying certain of the cognitive processes used during problem solving. In addition, the procedure was used to categorize the types of conceptual thinking problem solvers employ, to study the use of trial and error behavior, and to investigate problem solvers’ abilities to coordinate multiple bits of information. It appears that the procedure has application for generating hypotheses about cognitive processes problem solvers use.     

The consistency effect depends on markedness in less successful but not successful problem solvers: An eye movement study in primary school children

This study examined the effects of consistency (relational term consistent vs. inconsistent with required arithmetic operation) and markedness (relational term unmarked [‘more than’] vs. marked [‘less than’]) on word problem solving in 10–12 years old children differing in problem-solving skill. The results showed that for unmarked word problems, less successful problem solvers showed an effect of consistency on regressive eye movements (longer and more regressions to solution-relevant problem information for inconsistent than consistent word problems) but not on error rate. For marked word problems, they showed the opposite pattern (effects of consistency on error rate, not on regressive eye movements). The conclusion was drawn that, like more successful problem solvers, less successful problem solvers can appeal to a problem-model strategy, but that they do so only when the relational term is unmarked. The results were discussed mainly with respect to the linguistic–semantic aspects of word problem solving.     

Problem solving and classical genetics: Successful versus unsuccessful performance

Expert-novice problem-solving research is extended in this study to include classical genetics. Eleven undergraduates (novices) and nine graduate students and instructors (experts) were videotaped as they solved moderately complex genetics problems. Detailed analysis of these “think aloud” protocols resulted in 32 common tendencies that could be used to differentiate between successful and unsuccessful problem solvers. Experts perceive a problem as a task requiring analysis and reasoning and they tend to use a knowledge-development (forward-working) approach. They make frequent checks on the correctness of their work, use accurate and detailed bookkeeping procedures, and have a broader range of heuristics to apply to the problem. It is clear that studying problem solving using the expert/novice design requires that the problems be difficult enough to require more than more recall and yet simple enough to allow novices a chance for solution. Applying elementary probability concepts seemed to be the most difficult aspect of many of the genetics problems, even for the experts.     

Problem solving and chemical equilibrium: Successful versus unsuccessful performance

The purpose of this study was to describe the problem-solving behaviors of experts and novices engaged in solving seven chemical equilibrium problems. Thirteen novices (five high-school students, five undergraduate majors, and three nonmajors) and ten experts (six doctoral students and four faculty members) were videotaped as they individually solved standard chemical equilibrium problems. The nature of the problems was such that they required more than mere recall or algorithmic learning and yet simple enough to provide the novices a reasonable chance of solving them. Extensive analysis of the think-aloud protocols produced 27 behavioral tendencies that can be used to describe and differentiate between successful and unsuccessful problem solvers. Successful solvers' perceptions of the problem were characterized by careful analysis and reasoning of the task, use of related principles and concepts to justify their answers, frequent checks of the consistency of answers and reasons, and better quality of procedural and strategic knowledge. Unsuccessful subjects had many knowledge gaps and misconceptions about the nature of chemical equilibrium. Even faculty experts were sometimes unable to correctly apply common chemical principles during the problem-solving process. Important theoretical concepts such as molar enthalpy, heat of reaction, free energy of formation, and free energy of reaction were rarely used by novices in explaining problems.     

数学学科教育眼动研究的应用与启示

国内外的相关研究表明,眼动研究可以通过对数学问题解决过程中的眼动轨迹进行记录以及对注视时间、注视次数等眼动指标的分析,进而了解数学问题解决过程中,大脑的内部加工机制。数学学科能力主要体现为数学问题的解决能力,通过数学学科教育中的眼动研究文献分析发现,眼动研究有助于探寻数学问题解决过程中注意分配及加工策略选择过程。在数学学科教育中针对这些认知加工的特点进行策略教学旨在:培养高效的注意能力、提取关键的表征信息、激发多知识体系的想象力,更好地提高学科教育的有效性。     

The Effect of Visual‐Chunking‐Representation Accommodation on Geometry Testing for Students with Math Disabilities

Students who struggle with learning mathematics often have difficulties with geometry problem solving, which requires strong visual imagery skills. These difficulties have been correlated with deficiencies in visual working memory. Cognitive psychology has shown that chunking of visual items accommodates students’ working memory deficits. This study investigated the effects of visual‐chunking representation as a testing accommodation for improving students’ geometry problem‐solving performance. Participants were four third‐graders with difficulties in mathematics. An adapted reversal design was employed to examine the students’ performance changes during standard testing conditions and accommodated testing conditions. During the accommodated condition, students were presented with visual‐chunking images. Results suggested that the visual‐chunking representation accommodation improved students’ performance on geometry problem‐solving tasks, and an interview confirmed students’ preference for the visual‐chunking representation approach.     

Analysing cognitive or non‐cognitive factors involved in the process of physics problem‐solving in an everyday context

Recently, the importance of an everyday context in physics learning, teaching, and problem‐solving has been emphasized. However, do students or physics educators really want to learn or teach physics problem‐solving in an everyday context? Are there not any obstructive factors to be considered in solving the everyday context physics problems? To obtain the answer to these questions, 93 high school students, 36 physics teachers, and nine university physics educators participated in this study. Using two types of physics problems—everyday contextual problems (E‐problems) and decontextualized problems (D‐problems)—it was found that even though there was no difference in the actual performance between E‐problems and D‐problems, subjects predicted that E‐problems were more difficult to solve. Subjects preferred E‐problems on a school physics test because they thought E‐problems were better problems. Based on the observations of students' problem‐solving processes and interviews with them, six factors were identified that could impede the successful solution of E‐problems. We also found that many physics teachers agreed that students should be able to cope with those factors; however, teachers' perceptions regarding the need for teaching those factors were low. Therefore, we suggested teacher reform through in‐service training courses to enhance skills for teaching problem‐solving in an everyday context.     

How Can We Improve Problem Solving in Undergraduate Biology? Applying Lessons from 30 Years of Physics Education Research

If students are to successfully grapple with authentic, complex biological problems as scientists and citizens, they need practice solving such problems during their undergraduate years. Physics education researchers have investigated student problem solving for the past three decades. Although physics and biology problems differ in structure and content, the instructional purposes align closely: explaining patterns and processes in the natural world and making predictions about physical and biological systems. In this paper, we discuss how research-supported approaches developed by physics education researchers can be adopted by biologists to enhance student problem-solving skills. First, we compare the problems that biology students are typically asked to solve with authentic, complex problems. We then describe the development of research-validated physics curricula emphasizing process skills in problem solving. We show that solving authentic, complex biology problems requires many of the same skills that practicing physicists and biologists use in representing problems, seeking relationships, making predictions, and verifying or checking solutions. We assert that acquiring these skills can help biology students become competent problem solvers. Finally, we propose how biology scholars can apply lessons from physics education in their classrooms and inspire new studies in biology education research.     

Problem Solving and Teaching How to Solve Problems in Technology-Rich Contexts

ABSTRACT

Problem solving is perhaps the key characteristic that makes us human. Given the kinds of problems that we face in a competitive economy and society, the new generation of learners is ever more required to have problem-solving abilities. By drawing from the literature on technological pedagogical content knowledge, design thinking, general and specific methods of problem solving, and role of technologies for solving problems, this article highlights the importance of problem solving for future teachers and discusses strategies that can help them become good problem solvers and understand the requirements of teaching their students problem solving in technology-rich contexts. This article consists of two main parts. Part 1 focuses on strategies required to help preservice teachers to be better problem solvers, and Part 2 summarizes approaches to introduce preservice teachers to the methods of teaching problem solving. The strategies reviewed provide a tangible guidance for teacher education programs regarding how to promote future teachers’ problem-solving skills.     

Cognitive development and problem solving of Afro-American students in chemistry

The aims of this study were to investigate the level of cognitive development of Afro-American students enrolled in general chemistry courses at the college level and to determine the strategies used by both successful and unsuccessful Afro-American students in solving specific types of stoichiometric problems. It was found that the choice of a strategy is not significantly related to cognitive development of the student in specific types of stoichiometric problems. However, the following trend was noted: Students who are formal-operational in thought are more likely to be successful when solving mole-volume problems and complex mole-mole problems than are their concrete-operational counterparts. Additionally, a systematic strategy proved to be successful for the students, regardless of the cognitive development, when balancing simple and complex chemical equations. Also, algorithmic/reasoning strategies were needed to solve the mole-volume problem. A higher level of cognitive development and reasoning may be crucial factors in solving the more sophisticated types of problems in stoichiometry.     

Encouraging problem solving

Children seem to be natural problem solvers and delight in the challenges that are provided for them. Teachers who are careful observers of what children do can begin to provide many opportunities for helping them build their skills in problem solving. At the same time, it is important to let children create and solve some of their own newly discovered problems. A balance of both seems to be important to solving problems.Janis Bullock is Instructor of Early Childhood Education at Montana State University in Bozeman.     

PROBING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROCESS OF SPATIAL PROBLEMS SOLVING AND SCIENCE LEARNING: AN EYE TRACKING APPROACH

There were two purposes in the study. One was to explore the cognitive activities during spatial problem solving and the other to probe the relationship between spatial ability and science concept learning. Twenty university students participated in the study. The Purdue Visualization of Rotations Test (PVRT) was used to assess the spatial ability, whose items were divided into different types of problems with respect to the rotation angles and levels of plane invisibility. The eye tracking technology and the interview technique were employed to analyze subjects’ the online cognitive processes and problem solving strategies. Students’ concept gains were examined by content analysis after reading a science report. The result shows that, first, the interview analysis shows that students of different PVRT performances employed different problem solving strategies. Second, rotation angles as well as levels of plane invisibility inserted significant effects on the online processes and performances of the spatial problem solving. Third, the accuracy performance of PVRT was correlated with eye movement patterns. At last, it was found that concept performance was not correlated with PVRT performance but associated with spatial memory and problem solving strategies.     

Patterns of Verbal Mediation During Problem Solving: A Sequential Analysis of Self-Explanation

The explanations that participants give themselves (self-explanations) while learning or solving problems have been shown to be positively associated with various performance measures. The major aim of this study was to identify patterns of self-explanation that distinguish between good and poor problem solvers. Thirty-two Grade 9 students were asked to solve 3 mixture problems—1 warm-up problem and 2 test problems—while thinking aloud. The problem-solving process was videotaped, protocols were transcribed, and 5 content categories were identified. Through a sequential analysis, patterns of self-explanation that differentiate between good and poor problem solvers were identified.     

Successful and unsuccessful problem solving in classical genetic pedigrees

Using the think-aloud interview technique, 16 undergraduates and 11 genetics graduate students and biology faculty members were asked to solve from 1 to 3 classical genetics problems which require pedigree analysis. Subjects were classified as either successful or unsuccessful and the performances of these groups were analyzed from videotaped recordings of the interviews. A number of previously reported findings were corroborated. Additional observations are discussed in terms of genetic knowledge, use of production rules, strategy selection, use of critical cues, hypothesis testing, use of logic, understanding of issues of probability, and the thinking process itself. Taken collectively, these findings evidence a remarkable similarity between the successful solution of pedigree problems and the processes of medical diagnosis and scientific investigation. This convergence of research findings suggests a qualitative advance in the understanding of problem solving. Based on this understanding, recommendations for classroom instruction are presented.     

Exploring eye movements of experienced and novice readers of medical texts concerning the cardiovascular system in making a diagnosis

This study used the eye‐tracking method to explore how the level of expertise influences reading, and solving, two written patient cases on cardiac failure and pulmonary embolus. Eye‐tracking is a fairly commonly used method in medical education research, but it has been primarily applied to studies analyzing the processing of visualizations, such as medical images or patient video cases. Third‐year medical students (n = 39) and residents (n = 13) read two patient case texts in an eye‐tracking laboratory. The analysis focused on the diagnosis made, the total visit duration per text slide, and eye‐movement indicators regarding task‐relevant and task‐redundant areas of the patient case text. The results showed that almost all participants (48/52) made the correct diagnosis of the first patient case, whereas all the residents, but only 17 students, correctly diagnosed the second case. The residents were efficient patient‐case‐solvers: they reached the correct diagnoses, and processed the cases faster and with a lower number of fixations than did the students. Further, the students and residents demonstrated different reading patterns with regard to which slides they proportionally paid most attention. The observed differences could be utilized in medical education to model expert reasoning and to teach the manner in which a good medical text is constructed. Eye‐tracking methodology appears to have a great deal of potential in evaluating performance and growing diagnostic expertise in reading medical texts. However, further research using medical texts as stimuli is required. Anat Sci Educ 10: 23–33. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.     

A critical appraisal of four approaches which support teachers’ problem‐solving within educational settings

This paper critically appraises four problem‐solving approaches, based on a range of theoretical perspectives and procedures, which are currently used in educational settings to support adults to find solutions to complex problems that arise within classrooms and the wider school community. The four approaches are: Circles of Adults; Teacher Coaching; Collaborative Problem‐solving Groups; the Staff Sharing Scheme. The principle aim of all of these interventions is to enable school staff to generate solutions to problems so that children and young people who are causing concern are perceived in ways which lead to more constructive actions and outcomes. A second aim is to build the capacity of those working in schools by developing their skills and self confidence as problem‐solvers and decision‐makers; the assumption being that they will be more able to solve similar problems in the future largely on their own, without the need for extensive external support. The paper then considers the relative strengths and limitations of each approach in relation to practice.