Investigations of Temperament at Three to Seven Years: The Children''s Behavior Questionnaire

This article reviews evidence on the reliability and validity of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), and presents CBQ data on the structure of temperament in childhood. The CBQ is a caregiver report measure designed to provide a detailed assessment of temperament in children 3 to 7 years of age. Individual differences are assessed on 15 primary temperament characteristics: Positive Anticipation, Smiling/Laughter, High Intensity Pleasure, Activity Level, Impulsivity, Shyness, Discomfort, Fear, Anger/Frustration, Sadness, Soothability, Inhibitory Control, Attentional Focusing, Low Intensity Pleasure, and Perceptual Sensitivity. Factor analyses of CBQ scales reliably recover a three-factor solution indicating three broad dimensions of temperament: Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. This three-factor solution also appears to be reliably recovered in ratings of children in other cultures (e.g., China and Japan). Evidence for convergent validity derives from confirmation of hypothesized relations between temperament and socialization-relevant traits. In addition, parental agreement on CBQ ratings is substantial. The CBQ scales demonstrate adequate internal consistency, and may be used in studies requiring a highly differentiated yet integrated measure of temperament for children in this age range.     

The Relationship Between and Peer Relations in Preschool Children Parent-Rated Behavior Problems

The relationship between parent-rated behavior problems based on the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) and the peer relations of nonhandicapped and mildly developmentally delayed preschool children was examined in this study. Measures of the peer-related social interactions of 3- and 4-year-old nonhandicapped children and a 4-year-old developmentally delayed group were obtained as children participated in a series of specially designed playgroups. Correlations with scores for the behavior problem dimensions obtained from the PBQ with social interaction and negative relationship peer interaction factors revealed significant relationships only for the nonhandicapped 4-year-old children. Children rated by their mothers as high on the Hostile-Aggressive, Anxiety-Fearful, and Total Behavior Disturbed dimensions were less socially interactive with peers and received higher negative relationship scores than children with lower ratings.     

Temperament and Self-soothing Behavior in Children: Object Attachment, Thumbsucking, and Pacifier Use

Research Findings. Mothers of 4-, 6-, and 8-year-olds completed two questionnaires: (1) the Object Attachment Questionnaire, which was designed to provide information on children's attachments to soft objects, thumbsucking habits, and pacifier use, and (2) Rothbart's Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), which rated children on sixteen temperament dimensions. Discriminant function analysis showed that the best predictors for distinguishing between children who had never had an attachment to a soft object and children who had were: low intensity pleasure, impulsivity, approach/anticipation, attentional focusing, and sad- ness. Children with soft object attachments were rated higher (i.e. showed more) on all of these dimensions. None of the temperament dimensions distinguished between children who rarely sucked their thumbs and those who frequently did so, while children who had used a pacifier scored higher on two dimensions (activity level and approach/anticipation) than children who had not used a pacifier even though one was available. Results support the hypothesis that individual differences in temperament are associated with the development of attachment to objects. Practice. Children with attachments to soft objects and thumbs were not generally insecure or difficult to manage. The pattern of temperament differences, however, suggests strengths that teachers might make use of in the classroom as well as difficulties that might require staff intervention.     

The Relationship Between Parent-Rated Behavior Problems and Peer Relations in Preschool Children

The relationship between parent-rated behavior problems based on the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) and the peer relations of nonhandicapped and mildly developmentally delayed preschool children was examined in this study. Measures of the peer-related social interactions of 3- and 4-year-old nonhandicapped children and a 4-year-old developmentally delayed group were obtained as children participated in a series of specially designed playgroups. Correlations with scores for the behavior problem dimensions obtained from the PBQ with social interaction and negative relationship peer interaction factors revealed significant relationships only for the nonhandicapped 4-year-old children. Children rated by their mothers as high on the Hostile-Aggressive, Anxiety-Fearful, and Total Behavior Disturbed dimensions were less socially interactive with peers and received higher negative relationship scores than children with lower ratings.     

The reliability and validity of the pupil behaviour questionnaire: a child classroom behaviour assessment tool

ABSTRACT

This paper assesses the reliability and validity of the teacher-completed Pupil Behaviour Questionnaire (PBQ), by comparing it to the already extensively validated teacher-completed Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Participants included 2074 primary school children participating in a universal school-based trial and 41 vulnerable children who were taking part in a study exploring the impact of exclusion from school. Exploratory factor analysis results (first factor accounts for 80.8% of the variation in the items) and the high Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.85 indicate that the PBQ consists of one substantive factor/dimension. Strong correlations between the total PBQ score and the conduct sub-scale (Spearman’s correlation coefficient (r_s) = 0.67) and total difficulties score (r_s = 0.59) of the SDQ indicate convergent validity. This study suggests that the PBQ is a reliable measure, and provides some evidence of validity. Further work is needed to test the PBQ in an older, more diverse populations and to measure sensitivity to change.     

父母元情绪理念对5～7岁儿童情绪调节的影响

本研究采用分层整群抽样法,从河南省信阳市四所普通幼儿园学前班和三所普通小学二年级选取部分儿童及其家长和教师作为被试,运用<父母元情绪理念量表>和<儿童情绪调节量表>考察父母元情绪理念对5～7岁儿童情绪调节能力的影响,数据分析采用皮尔森积差相关分析以及多元逐步回归分析.研究结果显示:父母元情绪理念与5～7岁儿童情绪调节能力存在显著相关,且不同类型的父母元情绪理念对儿童的情绪调节能力有不同的预测力;性别和年龄差异对儿童的情绪调节能力也有一定的影响;父母评价与教师评价父母元情绪理念对儿童情绪调节的影响存在差异.     

A control group outcome study of a nonexclusionary time‐out package to improve social skills with preschoolers

Abstract

Teachers used a nonexclusionary time‐out package to treat inappropriate social behaviors that interfered with instructional tasks in four classrooms of preschool children, each containing an average of 16 students. We yoked classrooms on pretreatment scores of target behaviors and randomly assigned them to a time‐out ribbon plus praise or control condition. Students in the treatment condition wore wristbands with attached smiling face stickers and received praise from teachers for taking turns talking and remaining seated during group activities. Contingent on disruptive behavior, teachers removed the wristbands signaling a three‐minute time‐out period in which teachers restricted praise and attention but ongoing participation in activities continued. Multiple measures of treatment outcome were analyzed via MANCOVA and ANCOVAs. Behavior improved on direct observations of target behavior, the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) and items on a semantic differential, but not the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters. Treatment acceptability also supported treatment effects. We discuss implications of these results.     

Children's Temperament and Behavior in Montessori and Constructivist Early Childhood Programs

This study tested the hypothesis that curriculum type (Montessori and constructivist) moderates the impact of temperament (specifically activity level and attention-span/persistence) on the classroom behavior of 3- to 5-year-old children. Mothers enrolled in Montessori and constructivist preschools filled out the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory. The children's teachers filled out the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire and the Preschool Adjustment Questionnaire. A near-significant trend suggested that temperamentally active boys were more likely to be perceived by their teachers as having behavior problems if they were enrolled in Montessori programs than if they were enrolled in constructivist programs. There was no such trend for girls. There was no evidence that temperamental attention-span persistence moderated the impact of curriculum type on either boys' or girls' behavior. The findings thus give modest support to the notion that parents should be advised to select constructivist early childhood programs especially for boys who are temperamentally predisposed to be highly modifying their teaching practices to better accommodate the needs of these children active. In addition, directors and teachers in Montessori programs may consider modifying their teaching practices to better accommodate the needs of these children.     

Some Consequences of Early Harsh Discipline: Child Aggression and a Maladaptive Social Information Processing Style

Although a number of studies have reported a relation between abusive parental behavior and later aggressive behavior in the victim, many of these investigations have had methodological limitations that make precise interpretation of their results problematic. In the present study, we attempted to determine whether harsh parental discipline occurring early in life was associated with later aggression and internalizing behavior in children, using a prospective design with randomly selected samples to avoid some of these methodological difficulties. Structural equation modeling indicated a consistent relation between harsh discipline and aggression in 2 separate cohorts of children. This relation did not appear to be due to possible confounding factors such as child temperament, SES, and marital violence, although there was some indication in our data that the latter variables were related to child aggression. In addition, our analyses suggested that the effect of harsh discipline on child aggression may be mediated at least in part by maladaptive social information processing patterns that develop in response to the harsh discipline.     

Can Infant Temperament Be Used to Predict Which Toddlers Are Likely to Have Increased Emotional and Behavioral Problems?

The 'terrible twos' are often associated with increased temper tantrums, noncompliance and aggression. Although some expression of these behaviors is normal, whether early individual factors can predict which children are most at risk of frequent or prolonged emotional and behavioral problems is of increasing interest. The current study of 6,067 toddlers found that their 9 month scores on a new brief measure of temperament—the Infant Behavior Questionnaire – Revised - Very Short Form (IBQ-R-VSF)—were associated with both difficult behaviors and prosocial behaviors at age 2, measured using a preschool version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Controlling for a range of demographic, maternal characteristics and contextual factors, we found that infants higher on the trait Negative Emotionality and/ or lower on Orienting Capacity and Fear were more likely to develop hyperactivity, emotion, peer and conduct problems and less likely to demonstrate pro-social behaviors at two years of age. Temperament aged 9 months explained an additional 1 - 6 % of the variance in toddler behavior. These findings suggest that infant temperament is associated with the behavior strengths and difficulties of 2-year-olds and provide the first longitudinal validation of the new 5-factor structure of the new IBQ-R-VSF.     

Mother-child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament

The current study investigated a hypothesized link between early child temperament and later problem behavior. Early temperament was assessed at ages 6, 13, and 24 months via mother ratings on age-appropriate versions of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. The 24-month form was developed in this study. Factor analyses of the questionnaire indicated a clear difficultness factor that was similar in content across all 3 ages. The 6-, 13-, and 24-month difficultness factors were correlated with home observation measures of mother-toddler interaction at age 24 months. Home observation indexes focused on situations where the mother tried to control the toddler's "trouble" behavior. Children rated by their mothers as difficult at 24 months were found to approach "mild trouble" more frequently than children perceived as easy or average. Furthermore, their mothers used intrusive control tactics more frequently than mothers of easy or average children. Analysis of behavior sequence variables showed that difficult children resisted their mothers' control attempts significantly more often than easy or average children, that is, had more conflict with the mothers. The 6- and 13-month difficultness scores predicted both the 2-year-old difficultness rating and the observed conflict indexes. It is suggested that the conflict observed in the interaction between the difficult 2-year-olds and their mothers is conceptually similar to the conflictual behavior characteristic of older, clinically referred, socially aggressive children and their mothers. Thus, the conflicted interactions found at age 2 years may represent an empirically based link between difficult infant temperament and the development of childhood problem behavior.     

Studying Temperament via Construction of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire

The Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ) was constructed by an iterative process of item generation intended to ensure content validity, by repeated item analyses focused on internal consistency and discriminant properties, and by scale revision. During the construction and initial validation processes reported in this article, data from 1,012 records were utilized. Internal consistency reliability estimates typically exceeded .80 for each scale. Evidence for convergent validity with other temperament questionnaires and for longitudinal stability was also obtained. Besides yielding a promising instrument, this assessment research has conceptual ramifications. For instance, components of negative affectivity (anger proneness and fearfulness) were independent, and item analyses suggested that shyness and other fears were independent as well. Consistent with most current views of temperament, the TBAQ temperament scales revealed some relationship and/or contextual specificity, as exemplified by the finding of only moderate parental agreement. The rank ordering on most temperament dimensions was impressively preserved from age 12 months, when the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) was used, to age 18 months, when the TBAQ was used (especially when subtle differences between the IBQ and TBAQ were taken into account). Most of the analyses benefit from replication.     

Relationships among stressful life events,temperament, problem behavior,and global life satisfaction in adolescents

The relationships among stressful life events (SLEs), temperament, externalizing and internalizing behaviors, and global life satisfaction were investigated. The Students' Life Satisfaction Scale, the Youth Self Report (YSR) form of the Child Behavior Checklist, a portion of the Life Events Checklist, and the Abbreviated Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, were administered to 1,201 adolescents in grades 6 through 12 in a small city in the Southeast. A modest correlation was found between life satisfaction and Extraversion, whereas moderate correlations were found between life satisfaction and Neuroticism and life satisfaction and SLEs. Based upon hierarchical regression analyses, temperament variables accounted for approximately 16% of the variance in predictions of life satisfaction ratings. When SLEs were added, an additional 3% of the variance in life satisfaction ratings was subsequently explained. Life satisfaction did not operate as a moderator between SLEs and problem behavior. However, when global life satisfaction was added as a mediator variable, results indicated a partial mediational effect, particularly on internalizing behavior. Limitations of the study as well as implications for comprehensive psychological assessments are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 39: 677–687, 2002.     

Family Conflict and Children's Behavior Problems: The Moderating Role of Child Temperament

Child temperament was examined as a moderator of the link between family conflict and child behavior problems. Temperament assessed in early childhood was used to predict the relation between family conflict and externalizing behavior problems measured during the early elementary school years. For children with difficult temperament, a strong association between subsequent family conflict and behavioral adjustment was predicted; for children with easy or intermediate temperaments, low to moderate associations were predicted. These hypotheses were tested across 3 temperament groups (easy, intermediate, and difficult). Data were collected from 108 children and families participating in the Fullerton Longitudinal Study at ages 3 through 10 years. Consistent with the hypotheses, the data provided support for the moderating role of temperament in predicting the association between family conflict and child externalizing behavior problems. These findings suggest that temperamental difficultness operates as a vulnerability factor with respect to the development of children's behavior problems in families with high conflict.     

学龄前流动儿童行为问题与父母婚姻质量研究

考察学龄前流动儿童行为问题的现状及其与父母婚姻质量的关系。方法:采用Rutter儿童行为问卷和Olson婚姻质量问卷对学龄前流动儿童及其父母进行了测查。结果:(1)学龄前流动儿童行为问题的检出率为32.6%;(2)行为问题组和行为正常组儿童的父母婚姻质量在过份理想化、夫妻交流、解决冲突的方式、经济安排、子女和婚姻、与亲友的关系以及角色平等性上都存在显著的差异;(3)学龄前流动儿童行为问题与父母婚姻质量呈显著负相关;夫妻交流、子女和婚姻两个因子对学龄前流动儿童的行为问题具有显著负向预测作用。结论:学龄前流动儿童行为问题与父母婚姻质量之间关系密切,婚姻质量越低,学龄前流动儿童发生行为问题的概率就越高。     

Worried and Blue: Mild Parental Anxiety and Depression in Relation to the Development of Young Children's Temperament and Behavior Problems

Objective. This study explores relations between mild parental symptoms of anxiety and depression and the temperament and behavior patterns in preschool age children. Design. Parental report and laboratory observations were collected in a community sample (N = 65) of Head Start and other preschool attendees, ages 3-5 years. Results. Mild parental dysphoria is associated with measures of both child temperament and problem behaviors and these child personality measures vary with parental symptomatology. Mild parental depression was diffusely associated with increased levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, and with attention and emotion regulatory difficulties in children's temperament. Mild parental anxiety was more circumscribed in its association with child problem behavior but was specifically related to children's temperamental difficulties in attention and emotion regulation. Patterns differentiating association with depression and anxiety symptoms were evident from both parental and observer sources of information. Conclusions. Even mild levels of parental distress may relate to both parental perceptions of child temperament and behavior as well as what is observed by others.     

Links between preschool children's prosocial skills and aggressive conduct problems: The contribution of ADHD symptoms

The aim was to examine the relationship between prosocial behavior and conduct problems, especially aggression, in early childhood. In Phase 1 of the study, teachers reported on 93 3–5-year-old children's prosocial behavior and psychological problems, using a screening instrument, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). In Phase 2, 65 parents completed the SDQ and were interviewed in depth, using a clinical interview, the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA). Children with clinically significant symptoms of conduct disorder and ADHD were significantly less prosocial than other children. However, aggressive conduct symptoms were unrelated to prosocial behavior, once symptoms of ADHD were taken into account. The findings suggest that problems in regulating activity and attention interfere with prosocial development.     

More Than Meets the Eye: Parental and Infant Contributors to Maternal and Paternal Reports of Early Infant Difficultness

Objectives. This study examined correspondences among maternal and paternal ratings of infant temperament, parental psychological functioning, and infant behavior. Design. Participants included 120 families. When infants were 6 weeks old, mothers and fathers completed the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ); reported on their own levels of anxiety, depressive symptoms, and parenting stress; and completed a 3-day diary of their infants' behavior. Infant irritability was assessed in a laboratory situation. Results. Fathers rated their infants' temperament somewhat more negatively, but there was significant correspondence between maternal and paternal ratings on the temperament factors of fussiness, unadaptability, dullness, and a difficultness composite. Higher infant difficultness was consistently associated with parenting stress. Infant behavioral fussiness, as measured by 3-day diaries, was significantly correlated with temperament ratings by both parents and with irritability observed in the laboratory setting. Maternal psychological distress was weakly predictive of ratings of infant difficultness; infant behaviors (diary and laboratory-based irritability) accounted for 15 to 17% of the variance. Paternal psychological distress and infant behaviors contributed equally to difficultness ratings. Conclusions. Mothers and fathers are influenced by somewhat different factors in perceiving their babies' temperament, but both maternal and paternal reports have a basis in laboratory- and diary-based behaviors. Results indicate the strong contributing influence of infant irritability to the perception of difficult temperament and support the validity of parental reports of infant irritability in the first 6 weeks of life.     

Psychometric evaluation of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire-Very Short Form in preschool children using parent and teacher report

Temperament is a developmentally important construct, hierarchically comprised of several lower-order dimensions subsumed under effortful control, negative affectivity, and surgency. The Children's Behavior Questionnaire-Very Short Form (CBQ-VSF) was developed as a brief measure of the higher-order factors of temperament to aid researchers in understanding the relation between these factors and other developmentally important constructs. In this study, we examined the psychometric properties of the CBQ-VSF in preschool children (N = 277) using teachers and parents as informants. Several dimensions of temperament emerged independently of the three higher-order factors. Comparing the extracted factors to other measures of temperament revealed limited convergent and discriminant validity. Further, similar teacher and parent report factors did not correlate. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the CBQ-VSF be refined to better reflect core dimensions that comprise the higher-order factors.