Gender differences in science achievement: Do school effects make a difference?

The problem of the underrepresentation of girls in science in Australian schools is often attributed to their poor performance. Yet the role of both the home and the school in affecting female science achievement is rarely examined empirically. The comprehensiveness of the Second International Science Study database provided an excellent opportunity to investigate the presence of gender differences in science achievement. Although previous studies of gender differences in science achievement have relied on methodology that has not adequately accounted for the school effects, this study used the design effect and hierarchical linear modeling (multilevel analysis) to explore whether there were significant gender differences. The relative contribution of schools to student achievement was examined, and school-level differences were found to contribute significantly toward explaining variations in student performance. Although statistically significant sex differences were found in physics achievement for 10-year-old, 14-year-old, and year-12 students, school effects were much more powerful in explaining student differences (9–19%) when compared with gender (3%).     

Understanding the Gender Gap in Science and Engineering: Evidence from the Chilean College Admissions Tests

This study seeks to develop a better understanding of the underrepresentation of women in science and engineering by analyzing the gender gaps (a) in the interest in pursuing a science degree and (b) on science achievement. We use national-level college admissions data to examine gender differences and to explore the association between these outcomes and the attendance to single-sex or co-educational schools. The Chilean college admissions system provides a unique context to study these gender differences, since applicants who wish to pursue an undergraduate degree in science or engineering are required to take a high-stakes standardized science achievement test as part of the admission battery. This test has three subjects: biology, physics, and chemistry, and applicants must choose to be tested in only one of them. Significant gender differences exist for the examinees in their choice of subject and achievement on (the tests). Gender gaps favoring males are observed in the three forms. Both interest and achievement in science are associated with the sex composition of the school attended.     

The influence of selected physical science study committee (PSSC) films on certain learning outcomes in the teaching of high school physics

The study was initiated to determine whether students who saw selected PSSC films, in conjunction with the PSSC high school physics course, differed in their achievement of the subject matter of physics or in their understanding of science from similar students who did not see the films. The criterion tests were the PSSC Achievement Test Series and the Test on Understanding Science (TOUS). A total of 486 students in nine high schools in the eastern Massachusetts area participated in the study. Analysis of covariance was used to determine differences between treatment groups. It was concluded that for the particular group of students involved in the study the use of PSSC films in conjunction with the PSSC course did not influence student scores on the PSSC achievement tests or the Test on Understanding Science.     

Girls in Science and Technology: The development of a discourse

This article discusses the contribution of educational research to the emergence of a discourse on 'the problem of girls in science and technology' in the Netherlands. Research has not only produced findings and recommendations, but also conceptualisations of the problem. We argue that it has gradually become self-evident to think of the attitudes, achievement and choices of girls pertaining to science and technology as the problem of gender inequality in education. The results of many studies focusing on connections between teacher behaviour, the subject matter and school characteristics on the one hand and attitudes, achievement and choices of girls on the other, appear to be disappointing. We suggest that both the questions that were asked and the way they were investigated are responsible for the disappointing results. We propose that research on gender and education should not be limited to the investigation of statistical correlations between school characteristics and student outcomes, but should also study the mechanisms and processes that mediate between these factors. Insights from women's studies on the social construction of gender and on the development of gendered identities could be useful in addressing this issue.     

Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A meta-analysis of the literature from 1970 to 1991

A meta-analysis covering the literature between 1970 and 1991 was conducted using an approach similar to that suggested by Glass, McGaw, and Smith (1981) and Hedges, Shymansky, and Woodworth (1989). This analysis examined gender differences in student attitudes toward science, and correlations between attitudes toward science and achievement in science. Thirty-one effect sizes and seven correlations representing the testing of 6,753 subjects were found in 18 studies. The mean of the unweighted effect sizes was .20 (SD = .50) and the mean of the weighted effect size was .16 (SD = .50), indicating that boys have more positive attitudes toward science than girls. The mean correlation between attitude and achievement was .50 for boys and .55 for girls, suggesting that the correlations are comparable. Results of the analysis of gender differences in attitude as a function of science type indicate that boys show a more positive attitude toward science than girls in all types of science. The correlation between attitude and achievement for boys and girls as a function of science type indicates that for biology and physics the correlation is positive for both, but stronger for girls than for boys. Gender differences and correlations between attitude and achievement by gender as a function of publication date show no pattern. The results for the analysis of gender differences as a function of the selectivity of the sample indicate that general level students reflect a greater positive attitude for boys, whereas the high-performance students indicate a greater positive attitude for girls. The correlation between attitude and achievement as a function of selectivity indicates that in all cases a positive attitude results in higher achievement. This is particularly true for low-performance girls. The implications of these finding are discussed and further research suggested.     

Attitude Toward Self, Social Factors, and Achievement in Mathematics: A Meta-Analytic Review

This meta-analysis integrated 143 primary studies on the relationship of attitude toward self and social factors with achievement in mathematics. Attitude was decomposed into self-concept about mathematics, perception of family support, and perception of mathematics as a male domain. Major findings included: (a) self-concept, family support, and mathematics as a male domain were all related to achievement; (b) the three relationships did not show significant gender differences; (c) the three relationships consistently decreased from the junior high grades to the senior high grades; (d) the relationship between self-concept and achievement varied as a function of ethnicity, whereas the relationship between family support and achievement was consistent across ethnic background; (e) the three relationships all varied across sample selection; (f) the relationship between self-concept and achievement varied with sample size, whereas the relationships of family support and mathematics as a male domain with achievement were sample-size invariant; (g) the relationship between self-concept and achievement increased over time, whereas the relationships of family support and mathematics as a male domain with achievement remained almost unchanged over time; and (h) there were no statistically significant interaction effects among gender, grade, and ethnicity for any of the three relationships.     

Gender studies: some methodological and theoretical issues

In the first part of this paper, studies are reviewed which suggest that gender differences in science achievement can be explained entirely in terms of social factors, and which also suggest that these differences could be eliminated, or even reversed, by changing the social environment. For the studies examined, it is suggested that research workers may not have taken sufficient account of confounding variables in their work, and that the apparent changes in gender differential reported may be explained in terms of these confounding variables.

In the second part of the paper, studies are reviewed which seek explanation of gender differences in science achievement in terms of unequal treatment of boys and girls by science teachers in the classroom. It is concluded that the quality of the research work which has been undertaken is disappointing, and that the research evidence provided by these studies for the differential treatment of boys and girls by science teachers is far from convincing.

It is concluded that real gender differences in science achievement do exist, and that they cannot be explained fully in terms of the social environment. It is suggested that both biological and sociological theoretical perspectives on gender differences in science achievement are inadequate, and that further progress in understanding gender differences in science achievement will require a new theoretical synthesis. It is suggested that sociobiology may provide the required new theoretical synthesis by allowing for the recognition of both biological and environmental influences on science achievement.     

Is there a gender gap? A meta-analysis of the gender differences in students' ICT literacy

The study of gender differences in academic achievement has been one of the core topics in education, especially because it may uncover possible gaps and inequalities in certain domains. Whereas these differences have largely been examined in traditional domains, such as mathematics, reading, and science, the existing body of empirical studies in the domain of ICT literacy is considerably smaller, yet abounds in diverse findings. One of the persistent findings however is that boys consider their ICT literacy to be higher than that of girls. This meta-analysis tests whether the same pattern holds for students’ actual performance on ICT literacy tasks, as measured by performance-based assessments. In total, 46 effect sizes were extracted from 23 empirical studies using a random-effects model. Overall, the gender differences in ICT literacy were significant, positive, and favored girls (g = + 0.12, 95 % CI = [0.08, 0.16]). This effect varied between studies, and moderation analyses indicated that the grade level students were taught at moderated its magnitude—effect sizes were larger in primary school as compared to secondary school. In conclusion, our findings contrast those obtained from previous meta-analyses that were based on self-reported ICT literacy and suggest that the ICT gender gap may not be as severe as it had been claimed to be.     

Examining the evidence from TIMSS: Gender differences in Year 8 science achievement in Australia

Australia's continuing participation in international science studies such as TIMSS provides a useful lens through which to monitor achievement in science over time. Gender differences in science were not evident in the early years of TIMSS but appear to be growing. This article examines gender differences in science achievement in early secondary schooling in Australia using data from the TIMSS 2003 study. The aim is to explore the cultural, social, structural and institutional factors that may differentially influence science achievement, with the aim of identifying which are more important for males and for females.     

Learning about technology: Family vs. peer pairings

Recently a number of institutions have begun sponsoring nondeficit science and/or technology learning experiences for parents and their middle school-aged children which are intended to be enriching rather than remedial or compensatory in purpose. Very little research documenting the effects of parental involvement in the education of older children has been reported, however. The intent of this article was to present two studies designed to determine whether middle school-aged children's attitudes and content achievement are different when they take a technology course with their parents (parent-child treatment) or with their peers (child-child treatment). The first study focused on learning about communications technology (primarily telegraphs, telephones and radios); the second study focused on microcomputers. Results indicate that parents have little affect in helping their children learn the subject matter of technology courses. Likewise, parents do not affect children's attitudes toward computers. Both results were attenuated by the fact that the students in the studies were high achievers who were interested in and motivated to learn the subject matter, regardless of treatment. Significant differences were noted for computer literacy favoring the parent-child group, however. Parents also seemed to effect children's attitudes toward the subject matter of the courses. Further research needs to be done with less appealing course content or with less motivated students to fully determine the effect of parent-child and child groupings in science and technology courses.     

Socioeconomic Gaps in Academic Achievement Within Schools: Are They Consistent Across Subject Areas?

Few studies have examined the correlates of within-school socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement corresponding to subject areas across schools. This study addressed this limitation with data from the New Brunswick School Climate Study (N = 6,883 students from 148 schools) which contained measures on academic achievement in four subject areas (mathematics, science, reading, and writing) as well as student and school background characteristics. Results of multivariate, multilevel analyses showed that within-school socioeconomic gaps were similar between reading and writing as well as between mathematics and science. Furthermore, the interrelationships of within-school socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement corresponding to the four subject areas across schools were not much influenced by student background characteristics (gender, Native status, number of parents, and number of siblings) and characteristics of school context and climate (school size, school mean SES, disciplinary climate, academic expectation, and parental involvement).     

Cognitive Abilities among Twelfth‐grade Students: Implications for Science Teaching∗

The study investigated the differences related to formal reasoning abilities among students attending different sections of the upper cycle of secondary schools in Cyprus. The subjects of the study were twelfth‐grade students from 21 intact classes (227 boys and 242 girls). These classes were randomly selected among the 36 twelfth‐grade classes of four schools in a town of Cyprus. The sample of students represented the science section, the economic section and the “unified” section consisting of sections following common curricula in science and mathematics. Students’ performance on a standardized Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) was used as a measure of their cognitive abilities related to control of variables, proportional, probabilistic, correlational and combinatorial reasoning. The students of the “unified” section had lower performance than the students of both the science and the economic section on all cognitive measures, and female students had lower performance than male students on cognitive measures related to control of variables and probabilistic reasoning. Multiple regression analysis between performance on TOLT and gender, section of study, and measures of school achievement showed that gender, section of study, achievement in mathematics, and grade point average, but not achievement in science and Greek language, contributed significantly to predicting performance on TOLT. Observed differences related to measures of school achievement either among the subjects of the three sections or between male and female students did not correspond to differences related to cognitive measures. Factor analysis of performance on the ten TOLT items (two items from each reasoning mode) produced a two‐factor solution. There were also significant differences in students’ performance between items related to the same or different reasoning mode. The results of the study cast doubt on the appropriateness of the existing curricula or their implementation and indicate that different theoretical perspectives should be considered when evaluating cognitive development.     

Instructional strategy change and the attitude and achievement of seventh- and eighth-grade science students

This sequential methodologic elaboration study investigated differences between the middle school and the junior high instructional strategies and the effects on adolescent attitude toward science in school and science achievement. Subjects of the quantitative phase were 570 seventh- and eighth-grade students in one school in an urban school district in the midwest United States during a transition year from junior high to middle school. Germann's Attitude toward Science in School Assessment and the school district's Benchmark Exams were employed to measure student pre- and posttest attitude and achievement. Variations within grade level, gender, race, general ability, and socioeconomic group were evaluated. Results of split plots revealed no significant differences in science attitude between the experimental middle school group and the junior high control group at this phase. However, there was significant improvement in attitude in both seventh-grade populations, but no change in attitude in either eighth-grade population. No significant differences in attitude were found between males and females, Caucasian students and students of color, or students of different ability or socioeconomic groups. Significant increases in science achievement were revealed in the seventh-grade junior high control group, the eighth-grade middle school, and the eighth-grade junior high, but not in the seventh-grade middle school. No significant differences in achievement were found between males and females. Caucasians scored significantly higher in achievement than students of color. Average and high ability students scored significantly higher pretest to posttest, but low ability students did not. High ability students scored significantly higher than both average and low ability groups. There was significant improvement in science achievement for students in the sufficient socioeconomic status group, but not in the low socioeconomic status group. These results were discussed with the five science teachers, the principal, and a university consultant in the setting, who were the informants of the qualitative elaboration phase of the study. Ethnographic methods uncovered themes explaining differences and similarities within the two instructional strategies. Teachers' feelings and stages of concern were identified. The results are discussed in terms of effectively implementing changes in instructional strategies and assessing science achievement of early adolescents.     

Socioeconomic and Gender Effects on Science Achievement: An Australian Perspective

The purpose of this study is to investigate science achievement of Australian students and how this achievement can vary from school to school. The proposition that gender and socioeconomic inequities in Australia are the result of school systems designed to reproduce an unequal social order was examined with reference both to current sociological literature and methodological techniques which account for the hierarchical nature of students nested in schools. Additionally, student‐level and school‐level variables are investigated for their ability to explain gender and socioeconomic differences in science achievement, as well as general student variability. Even after adjusting for the students’ individual characteristics and home backgrounds, as well as the context of the school, there were significant gender and socioeconomic differences in science achievement across Australian schools. The importance of variability in science achievement between schools is shown in this study, with specific reference to how this variability can be attributed to the school system.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY PERCEIVED PARENTAL SUPPORT ON STUDENT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT AND STEM CAREER ATTAINMENT

The lack of females entering STEM careers is well documented. Reasons for the gender gaps at all stages of the educational pipeline include both internal factors such as self-concept and external factors such as the influence of parents, media, and educators. Using latent growth curve analysis and nationally representative longitudinal survey data, this study compares differences in the relationship between a critical external factor (perceived early parental support), student mathematics and science achievement trajectories, and persistence in STEM career by gender. Mathematics and science trajectories were positively related to STEM career persistence for males and females. Perceived early parental support was related to growth in mathematics achievement for males but not females. There was no relationship between early perceived parental support and growth in science achievement for either males or females. These findings indicate differences in the relationship between parental support, achievement, and career persistence depending on content area and gender.     

EQUITY IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE OUTCOMES: CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH AND LOW ACHIEVEMENT ON PISA 2006 IN IRELAND

Equity in education is a key concern internationally; however, it is rare that this issue is examined separately for low- and high-achieving students and concurrently across different subject domains. This study examines student and school background characteristics associated with low and high achievement in mathematics and science on the Programme for International Student Assessment. Based on the results of a multilevel multinomial model of achievement for each domain, findings indicate that a greater number of the variables examined are associated with low rather than high achievement. At student level, home language, intention to leave school early, socioeconomic status, grade level, cultural capital, and books in the home are significantly associated with achievement in mathematics and science. At school level, only school average socioeconomic status is statistically significant in the models. Significant gender differences are found in the distribution of high and low achievers, which vary across the domains. In mathematics, females are more likely to be low achievers while males are more likely to be high achievers. In science, gender interacts with early school-leaving intent whereas males intending to leave school early are more likely to be in the low-achieving group than females intending to leave early. Conclusions emphasise the need for targeting resources aimed at promoting equity in outcomes at student level as well as at school level. Future work may extend the current analyses by incorporating domain-specific variables or examining cross-country differences.     

An assessment of the impact of science experiences on the career choices of male and female biology students

Earlier studies of gender differences in science courses and careers have identified three probable causes: numbers of mathematics courses, level of science achievement, and attitudes toward science. Recently, differential science experiences have been suggested as a factor contributing to the gender differences found in science interest and achievement. A study of science activities, both within and outside of school, has been conducted. Although both boys and girls report similar classroom experiences, boys more often than girls report extracurricular science activities. The findings suggest that equal experiences within science classrooms do not overcome the advantage that boys hold due to more extracurricular science activities. Increased experiences in science, however, have led to more positive attitudes toward science among the girls in this study.     

Subject matter competence and the recruitment and retention of secondary science teachers

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of subject matter knowledge in science and the patterns of entering, leaving, and remaining in the teaching profession among college graduates trained to be science teachers. To do this, National Teachers Examination (NTE) Biology and General Science test scores served as the proxy for science subject matter knowledge for a sample of 83 individuals initially certified to teach science in North Carolina during a 4-year period of time. The career patterns of these individuals as science teachers were documented and their work status was identified as nonrecruits, defectors, or career teachers. Using maximum likelihood logistical regression (MLOGIT) analysis, the relationship between career status (the dependent variable) and knowledge of science, race, gender, and the race and status (public or private) of the college from which they graduated was investigated. Of the 83 individuals in the analysis, 30 (36.1%) were identified as nonrecruits, 31 (37.3%) as defectors, and 22 (26.5%) as career teachers. Science subject matter knowledge was found to have a significant (p = .01) effect on the likelihood of being a nonrecruit versus a career teacher. The magnitude of this effect was also important, with the likelihood of being a nonrecruit increasing 120% for every 100-point increase in score on the NTE Biology and General Science tests. Science subject matter knowledge also had a significant effect (p = .05) on the likelihood of being a defector versus a career teacher, with the likelihood increasing 80% for every 100-point increase in NTE Biology and General Science scores. No other significant relationships were found.     

Examining the influence of a STEM certification model on female,minority science outcomes

The authors of this exploratory study examine the influence of the Georgia science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) model; gender; race; and other achievement on elementary students’ science outcomes in Title I schools. Results of the study demonstrate that a positive relationship exists between students participating in a STEM-certified school and science achievement at the third-grade level (n = 339), and that race, gender, and mathematics and reading achievement did not significantly explain science achievement. At the Grade 5 level (n = 279), a negative relationship was found between science achievement and type of school, with students participating in STEM schools scoring lower than those students participating in non-STEM schools. Moreover, in Grade 5, the combination of demographic variables, race and gender, did significantly explain science achievement. The practical and empirical implications of the results are discussed.     

Understanding the role cumulative exposure to highly qualified science teachers plays in students' educational pathways

Years of experience, education level, and subject matter expertise are three measures of teacher qualification that are employed widely in contemporary educational policies including tenure, salary, and hiring, despite significant questions about their effectiveness at predicting student performance. These questions reveal a critical gap in the literature, concerning, in particular, the enduring impact of teachers' qualifications on students' educational experiences, and they ways in which related research has traditionally been framed and conducted. Specifically, studies examining these predictors have focused almost exclusively on investigating the role that an individual teacher's qualifications have on students' performance. In schools, however, students are exposed to different teachers every year, and those teachers often have differing qualifications. This study explores the impact of teacher qualification from a cumulative perspective by examining the relationship between cumulative science teachers' qualifications (measured by years of experience, education level, and subject matter expertise) and students' educational success (academic achievement, college enrollment, and decision to major in a Science, Technology, Engineering, or Mathematics field). The study found that students taught by science teachers who—as a group—were cumulatively more highly qualified, tended to have higher achievement, as well as better educational pathways and outcomes in STEM. Given that students are taught by teachers from across a broad spectrum of qualification throughout their schooling, findings from this study could have important implications, not only for research and practice, but also for education policy.