亲社会行为的动机理论

研究者们在广泛吸收有关亲社会行为研究成果的基础上,结合各自多年的研究,提出了多种较为全面、深刻的亲社会行为动机理论,旨在揭示亲社会行为发生发展的心理机制。文章扼要解释了研究者们所提出的亲社会行为的动机理论,并作简要评论。     

儿童亲社会行为的培养

儿童的亲社会行为对儿童以后的人格、性格和身心健康都有很重要的影响.儿童亲社会行为的培养策略主要包括三个方面：（1）利用榜样的作用包括教师、家长和同伴三方面;（2）培养儿童的移情能力;（3）利用表扬和奖励的方式.     

The Relations of Children's Dispositional Prosocial Behavior to Emotionality, Regulation, and Social Functioning

The purpose of this study was to examine the relations of a measure of children's dispositional prosocial behavior (i.e., peer nominations) to individual differences in children's negative emotionality, regulation, and social functioning. Children with prosocial reputations tended to be high in constructive social skills (i.e., socially appropriate behavior and constructive coping) and attentional regulation, and low in negative emotionality. The relations of children's negative emotionality to prosocial reputation were moderated by level of dispositional attentional regulation. In addition, the relations of prosocial reputation to constructive social skills and parent-reported negative emotionality (for girls) increased with age. Vagal tone, a marker of physiological regulation, was negatively related to girls' prosocial reputation.     

中学生的道德判断推理水平，同伴关系和亲社会行为关系研究

以286名上海市普通中学的学生（初一、初三、高二）为研究对象，利用道德判断推理量表、班级戏剧量表和社会测量法进行研究。结果发现中学生的亲社会行为与道德判断推理不存在显著相关，但它与同伴关系的相关显著，同伴关系与道德判断推理之间不存在显著相关，中学生同伴关系是其亲社会行为的一个有效的预测因素。     

家庭环境与同伴关系对幼儿亲社会行为的影响

本研究选取大连市2所幼儿园共240名3～5岁幼儿作为被试,采用幼儿社会行为评定问卷、家庭环境量表、同伴提名法进行测试,考察家庭环境和同伴关系对幼儿亲社会行为的影响.研究表明:(1)4～5岁是幼儿亲社会行为发展的关键期,女孩的亲社会行为水平显著高于同龄男孩.(2)家庭亲密度和家庭矛盾性可以有效预测幼儿的亲社会行为水平.(3)不同同伴地位的幼儿亲社会行为水平有显著差异,其中,被拒绝组幼儿的亲社会行为水平显著低于受欢迎组、被忽略组和普通组幼儿.(4)家庭亲密度与同伴关系交互影响幼儿的亲社会行为水平.随着幼儿同伴地位的不同,家庭亲密度对其亲社会行为水平的影响强度也不同,其中,对有争议组幼儿和被拒绝组幼儿的影响尤为显著.     

Classifying Prosocial Behavior: Children's Responses to Instrumental Need,Emotional Distress,and Material Desire

This study investigates the diversity of early prosocial behavior by examining the ability of ninety‐five 2‐ to 4‐year‐olds to provide aid to an adult experimenter displaying instrumental need, emotional distress, and material desire. Children provided appropriate aid in response to each of these cues with high consistency over multiple trials. In contrast to the consistency with which the children provided aid within each task, there were no cross‐task correlations, and the tendency to respond to each of the cues revealed unique developmental trajectories. Taken together, these results provide preliminary support for the importance of examining the cues to which children are responding and of differentiating between varieties of aid when considering the development of prosocial behavior.     

Parents' Use of Inductive Discipline: Relations to Children's Empathy and Prosocial Behavior

Relations between parents' discipline, children's empathic responses, and children's prosocial behavior were examined in order to evaluate Martin Hoffman's claim that children's empathy and empathy-based guilt mediate the socialization of children's prosocial behavior. 78 sixth and seventh graders (138–172 months in age), their mothers, and teachers completed multiple measures of Hoffman's constructs. Results were largely consistent with theory. Parents' use of inductive as opposed to power-assertive discipline was related to children's prosocial behavior. Children of inductive parents were more empathic; and more empathic children were more prosocial. Moreover, children's empathy was found to mediate the relation between parents' discipline and children's prosocial behavior. Few relations were obtained for children's guilt indices, but post hoc analyses yielded theoretically consistent results. Contrary to expectations, parents' use of statements of disappointment was the component of the inductive discipline score which was most strongly related to children's prosocial behavior.     

Empathy, Emotional Expressiveness, and Prosocial Behavior

Relations between emotional expressiveness, empathy, and prosocial behaviors are important for theoretical and practical reasons. In this study, all 3 areas were assessed across methods and sources. Emotional expressiveness and empathy were evaluated in 73 children in 3 age groups (5-, 9-, and 13-year-olds) by measuring facial and verbal responses to emotionally evocative videotapes and by ratings from best friends, parents, and teachers. Measures of emotional insight and role taking were also obtained. Prosocial behaviors were assessed by 3 laboratory tasks and by ratings from best friends, parents, and teachers. Confirming expectations, latent variable path analyses (Lohmöller, 1984) indicated that emotional expressiveness, emotional insight, and role taking were strong predictors of latent empathy (multiple R ²= .60). Boys' empathy, in turn, was a strong predictor of prosocial behavior, R ²= .55. In contrast, girls' empathy was related to prosocial behaviors with friends, R ²= .13, but not to cooperation with peers. Thus present findings provide important support and clarification for certain theoretical expectations, and also raise issues that need clarification.     

家庭教育与儿童道德行为养成

道德行为是在一定社会条件的制约下按照一定道德原则和规范,在个人利益和社会整体利益关系上,从本人意志出发自主选择的行为。在当代社会中,儿童的不良道德行为频发,家庭有着不可推卸的责任。家庭是儿童的第一所学校,父母的思想行为和教育方式无一不在影响着儿童的道德行为养成,作为家长应该时刻规范自己的言行举止,不断提升自我素质,为儿童提供一个良好的示范,并且顺应儿童的身心发展规律有意识地对儿童进行道德行为训练。     

Relations of Inhibition and Emotion-Related Parenting to Young Children's Prosocial and Vicariously Induced Distress Behavior

Children's prosocial behavior and personal distress are likely affected by children's temperament as well as parenting quality. In this study, we examined bidirectional relations from age 30 to 42 months between children's (N = 218) prosocial or self-focused (presumably distressed) reactions to a relative stranger's distress and both supportive emotion-related maternal reactions to children's emotions and children's shyness/inhibition. When controlling for 30-month prosocial behavior and personal distress behavior, maternal supportive (emotion-focused and problem-focused) reactions were positively related to prosocial behavior and marginally negatively related to children's personal distress behaviors and shyness/inhibition at 42 months. Thirty-month personal distress behavior predicted greater shyness/inhibition at 42 months, and 30-month shyness/inhibition was negatively related to prosocial behavior at 30 months.     

Peer Assessment of Children's Prosocial Behaviour

The study was designed to examine 8-12-year-olds' peer assessments of prosocial behaviour and their relationship to self-assessments, teacher-assessments and peer acceptance. Although prosocial behaviour has been studied for many years, it has been narrowly operationalised and research has tended to lack ecological validity. To rectify these weaknesses, child-generated normative prosocial behaviours were used to generate peer nomination items for the purpose of rating children's performance of prosocial behaviour in peer interactions. Children also filled out self-ratings of social behaviour and peer sociometric nominations. Teachers assessed children's social behaviour, rating the same child-generated prosocial behaviours. Popular children were rated as significantly more prosocial than all other sociometric groups and rejected children were rated as significantly less prosocial than all other groups. The highest correlation was found between teacher and peer reports of prosocial behaviour. Self-ratings and peer-ratings of prosocial behaviour were significantly related, as were self-ratings and teacherratings of prosocial behaviour. Implications of research findings are discussed.     

儿童亲社会行为与移情

亲社会行为是儿童社会化的一个重要标志。移情则是影响儿童社会化实现的一个重要因素,本文试图就儿童亲社会行为的形成与移情的关系作一探讨。     

The Role of Overt Aggression, Relational Aggression, and Prosocial Behavior in the Prediction of Children's Future Social Adjustment

2 limitations of past research on social adjustment were addressed: (1) the tendency to focus on forms of aggression that are typical of boys (e.g., overt aggression) and to neglect forms that are more typical of girls (e.g., relational aggression) and (2) the tendency to study negative behaviors (e.g., aggression), to the exclusion of positive behaviors (e.g., prosocial acts). Using a longitudinal design ( n = 245; third- through sixth-grade children, 9–12 years old), assessments of children's relational aggression, overt aggression, prosocial behavior, and social adjustment were obtained at 3 points during the academic year. Findings showed that, as has been demonstrated in past research for overt aggression, individual differences in relational aggression were relatively stable over time. Additionally, relational aggression contributed uniquely to the prediction of future social maladjustment, beyond that predicted by overt aggression. Finally, prosocial behavior contributed unique information (beyond that provided by overt and relational aggression) to the prediction of future social adjustment.     

Moral Motivation

Abstract:

It is claimed that there is a highly contingent and often misleading relationship between (a) giving reasons on a questionnaire and (b) genuine moral understanding. Also, many of the causal factors in shaping moral attitudes are irrelevant to their rational‐moral justification, thus creating a lack of harmony between the two. The solution is a balanced programme that gives equal stress to moral reasoning and to opportunities for relevant emotive and evaluative experience. Aspects of Kant and Schopenhauer are discussed in order to show how reason and feeling may be constructively interdependent in moral motivation.     

Children's Moral Motive Strength and Temperamental Inhibition Reduce Their Immoral Behavior in Real Moral Conflicts

This study is concerned with the prediction of interindividual differences in children's immoral behavior in real moral conflicts by moral motive strength (appropriate attribution of moral emotions to story characters), temperamental inhibition, and ego control. Children were tempted to cheat at age 6 when they felt unobserved, or to contend for a scarce resource in peer triads at age 7. Moral motive strength and inhibition, but not ego control, predicted low cheating and low nonverbal rivalry to a similar extent. Extreme group analyses of children low or high in both traits showed that cheating/noncheating could be predicted with a hit rate above 90%. Nonverbal rivalry in a group increased exponentially with the number of low-moral uninhibited children in the group, a finding replicated within the same sample. Discussion focuses on the influence of moral motive strength, temperamental inhibition, ego control, and their interaction on the reduction of immoral behavior.     

Smith, Hume and the Moral Imagination: Sympathy and Social Justice

In this article, the author argues that there is still much to learn from the moral theories developed by two eminent philosophers, John Smith and David Hume, that can contribute to enhancing the sensibilities of students in classroom discussions about a range of moral and social justice issues. He argues that when school students are afforded the opportunity to imagine the circumstances of those persons suffering various forms of social marginalization, they can gain a heightened awareness on the affective and practical implications of social injustice, and feel more compelled to transform the unacceptable inequities they encounter. He suggests that encouraging students to use their moral imaginations and sensibilities will invoke a sympathetic response that raises their collective consciousness on the moral importance of attempting to create a more compassionate, benevolent and equitable society.     

The Longitudinal Associations Among Temperament,Parenting, and Turkish Children's Prosocial Behaviors

In Turkey, responsive behaviors toward kin are expected from children. Despite this, we know little about the factors that influence young Turkish children's prosocial behaviors. The goal was to explore how temperament and parenting are related to children's prosocial development in Turkey. A total of 293 Turkish children (M_age = 49 months; 48.12% females) were followed up for 3 years. Mothers completed measures of their child's prosocial behaviors, as well as measures of their warmth, inductive reasoning, and the child's approach and reactivity. Maternal warmth predicted children's reactivity, and maternal induction predicted children's sociability. Children's reactivity was inversely related to children's helping behavior and sociability was related to more prosocial behavior. Maternal warmth had indirect links with helping through lessening children's reactivity.     

Children's Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour,as Perceived by Children,Parents and Teachers

Within the context of a widespread concern with children's antisocial behaviour, especially bullying, the development of ‘whole‐school’ policies on bullying, and also recent national guidelines which emphasise the importance of fostering children's prosocial behaviours, this research examines the extent to which children, parents and teachers exhibit within‐ and between‐group consensus, both in their perceptions and relative judgements of different forms of child prosocial and antisocial behaviours, and in their responses to such behaviours. Less consensus was found in judgements of prosodal than of antisocial behaviours, both within and between groups, and significant between‐group differences are discussed in the context of the teaching of social behaviour.     

First-Grade Teacher Behaviors and Children's Prosocial Actions in Classrooms

Research Findings: This study examines whether specific teacher instructional practices in early education are associated with children's engagement in prosocial behavior. Teachers’ verbal encouragement of prosocial behavior and empathy, emotional warmth, positive behavior management, vocabulary instruction, and encouragement of expressive language were explored in relation to children's classroom prosocial behavior. We also examined whether increased prosociability was evident in the classrooms of teachers who both encouraged prosocial behavior and empathy and demonstrated emotional warmth. We observed 124 first-grade classrooms that included 2,098 children. Results indicated that teachers’ verbal encouragement of prosocial behavior and empathy was most strongly associated with classroom prosocial behavior. There was also a significant association between encouragement of expressive language and prosocial behavior. Emotional warmth, positive behavior management, vocabulary instruction, and the joint effect of teacher emotional warmth and encouragement of prosocial behavior and empathy was not associated with prosocial behavior. Practice or Policy: These findings suggest that teachers’ more deliberate encouragement of prosocial and empathic behavior and their creation of a positive, interactive social environment may support students’ prosocial behavior. The implications of these findings are particularly important for young children learning to engage with others.     

The Influences of Family,Peers, School and Media in Children’sProsocial Behaviors

Children's skills of social interaction is a significant index of their following psychological development. Prosocial behaviors which influenced by many factors are fundamental representatives of social interaction. Present essay illustrates an indepth review of literature concerning the impacts of family,peers, school and media in Children's prosocial behaviors and also indicates the limitations of each research.