少年儿童领悟社会支持量表的编制

为编制适合我国少年儿童领悟社会支持测试的量表,在借鉴国内外相关量表和进行开放式问卷调查的基础上编制问卷,应用对1261名中小学生的调查数据进行探索性因素分析和验证性因素分析,并分析量表的信效度.结果发现少年儿童领悟社会支持包括家庭支持、同伴支持、学校支持3个正向支持因素和欺负与歧视1个负向支持因素,共4个因素.验证性因素分析结果表明4个因素模型拟合较好.量表的α信度系数为0.748,重测信度0.933,效度较高.结论:所编制的量表具有良好的信度和效度,可用于少年儿童领悟社会支持的测试.     

Adolescents' ratings of perceived social support and its importance: Validation of the student social support scale

This study investigated the measurement of social support for adolescents using the Student Social Support Scale(SSSS). A sample of 198 students in grades 7 through 12 completed the SSSS and either the Student Self‐Concept Scaleor the Social Skills Rating System. The results provided evidence that the SSSS is a four‐factor scale (Parent, Teacher, Classmate, and Close Friend). Analyses also indicated that: (a) the SSSS is highly reliable and moderately stable; (b) social support differed by developmental/age groups and by sex; and (c) relationships exist among social support, self‐concept, and social behavior. It was concluded that the SSSS is a promising measure of students' perceived social support for use in both research and practice with children and adolescents. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Measuring perceived school support for inclusive education in Bangladesh: the development of a context-specific scale

International studies have identified that teachers require adequate support, including human and material resources, if they are to successfully implement inclusive education (IE) in regular classes. Past research shows that the level of support teachers feel they are receiving, from members of the school community and in the provision of appropriate teaching resources and training, may influence their attitudes towards IE and their willingness to undertake IE. Conceptualizing perceived school support as a subjective norm within the theory of planned behaviour, a context-specific, ‘Perceived School Support for Inclusive Education’ (PSSIE) scale was developed to measure teachers’ perceptions of support. This paper reports the development process of the PSSIE scale which included item generation, content validation and statistical procedures. Using a four-stage sampling method, a sample of 1,387 primary school teachers from the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh was selected for this study. The results provide preliminary evidence that the PSSIE (with eight items) meets the standards for reliability and, thus, presents as a useful scale by which to measure teachers’ perceptions of school support for implementing IE. The paper also illustrates limitations and direction for further studies.     

Childhood social anxiety and social support-seeking: distinctive links with perceived support from teachers

Social support-seeking is recognised as an important strategy used by children to cope with negative emotions. However, there are important gaps in our knowledge about children’s perceptions of different sources of social support, and the associations that these perceptions have with individual differences in socio-emotional functioning. The present study focused on elucidating the links between social support-seeking and social anxiety in children, with particular attention to support from teachers. One hundred and eight 11- to 12-year-olds completed measures of social anxiety and depressive symptoms, as well as a questionnaire measuring social support-seeking processes for coping with a generic friendship problem. Preliminary analyses showed that teachers were less likely to be approached for social support than parents and peers, and were viewed as least available and least effective. However, social anxiety—independently of depressive symptoms and gender—was positively associated with a greater self-reported likelihood of approaching teachers for support. Moreover, this effect was partially mediated by the perceived effectiveness of emotion-focused support from teachers. These results point to theoretical and practical implications regarding the salience of social support in school for children with higher levels of social anxiety.     

Measuring perceived competence and social acceptance in children with cerebral palsy

The Dutch Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Children with Cerebral Palsy was translated and administered to an English sample. This scale was developed to assess the child's perception on cognitive, physical and social domains. Thirty-two children, aged 4 to 9 years, were tested twice. The results indicate good test/retest reliability and good internal consistency. The results on the intercorrelations between the four sub-scales supported internal validity of the pictorial scale. It is concluded that the pictorial scale for young children with cerebral palsy is a reliable and valid instrument for determining the perception of children with cerebral palsy, and application in clinical and class settings is discussed.     

The predictors of perceived social support among former foster youth

Based on a 5-wave panel survey of 732 foster youth, the current study examined the respective relationships between foster youths' individual characteristics, youths' social connections with individuals and formal institutions, and the development of perceived social support across the transition to adulthood. Several youth characteristics – including self-reported delinquency and attachment insecurity – were found to be statistically significantly associated with perceived social support. Attachment insecurity also appeared to mediate the relationships between social support and several other youth-level characteristics, including prior placement disruptions and placement with relatives. Social connections with different types of individuals – including caregivers, relatives, natural mentors, and romantic partners – were found to be associated with additive increases in perceived social support. However, some types of connections (e.g., romantic partners, natural mentors) appeared to be associated with much larger increases in social support than other connections (e.g., school or employment). Collectively, the findings help inform agencies' efforts to bolster foster youths' social connections as they transition to adulthood.     

The dark side of social support: Understanding the role of social support,drinking behaviors and alcohol outlets for child physical abuse

The purpose of this study is to examine how parental drinking behavior, drinking locations, alcohol outlet density, and types of social support (tangible, emotional, and social companionship) may place children at greater risk for physical abuse. Data on use of physical abuse, drinking behaviors, types of social support, social networks, and demographic information were collected via telephone interviews with 3,023 parent respondents in 50 cities in California. Data on alcohol outlet density were obtained by the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control. Multilevel Poisson models were used to analyze data for the drinking levels in the entire sample and dose-response drinking models for drinkers. Social companionship support was related to more frequent use of physical abuse. Having a higher percentage of social companionship support network living within the neighborhood was related to more frequent physical abuse in the full sample. This relationship was moderated by on-premise alcohol outlet density. With regards to drinking behaviors, drinking behaviors from ex-drinkers to frequent heavy drinkers used physically abusive parenting practices more often than lifetime abstainers. The dose-response models show that each additional drinking event at a bar or home/party was related to more frequent use of physical abuse. Practitioners working with parents who abuse their children should be aware that not all social support is beneficial. Findings build evidence that child maltreatment is influenced by the interaction between individual and ecological factors.     

Protective factors for depressive symptoms in adolescents: Interpersonal relationships and perceived social support

The association between interpersonal relationships, perceived social support, and depressive symptoms in adolescents was investigated in the present study. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depressive Symptoms Scale (CES‐D‐SF), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), and Interpersonal Relationship Scale (IRS) were administered to 1,573 high school students. There were four main findings: all three types of interpersonal relationships (same‐sex peer, opposite‐sex peer, and teacher–student relationship) and perceived social support had direct effects on depressive symptoms; perceived social support was a mediator in the relationship between interpersonal relationships and depressive symptoms; gender differences were present in the relationship between interpersonal relationships and depressive symptoms; and the three types of interpersonal relationships exerted different effects on depressive symptoms between adolescent boys and girls. Same‐sex relationships exerted the strongest effect on depressive symptoms among girls, whereas teacher–student relationships exerted the strongest effect among boys.     

The relationship between perceived social support and maladjustment for students at risk

This study examines the relationship between adolescents' (N = 125) perceived social support and self‐reported (mal)adjustment indicators in a sample of predominantly at risk: Hispanic students in an urban middle school. The instruments used to collect data were the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (Malecki, Demaray, & Elliott, 2000) and the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Self Report of Personality (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1998). Results indicated significant relationships in the expected direction between overall social support and clinical and school (mal)adjustment indicators. Parent and classmate support were most strongly related to clinical and interpersonal indicators whereas parent, teacher, and school support were related to school‐related indicators. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Factor structure of the pictorial scale of perceived competence and social acceptance with two pre-elementary samples

Competing models of the factorial structure of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PSPCSA) were tested for fit using multisample confirmatory factor analysis. The best fitting model was tested for invariance (a) across samples of middle-class (n = 251) and economically disadvantaged (Head Start, n = 117) kindergarten children (whose ages ranged from 67 to 86 months), and (b) over time (at the end of preschool and kindergarten) for the Head Start sample. For kindergarten children, regardless of socioeconomic status, the factor structure of the PSPCSA was consistent with the 2-factor model of Competence and Acceptance. This model also fit reasonably well for Head Start children at the end of their preschool year. However, in addition to providing broad support for the dimensionality of the measure, our findings highlight important concerns about the PSPCSA.     

Childhood physical abuse, early social support, and risk for maltreatment: current social support as a mediator of risk for child physical abuse

OBJECTIVE: The study investigated whether perceptions of social support in adulthood partially mediated the associations between childhood experiences (i.e., receipt of physical abuse and levels of early social support) and adult risk for child physical abuse. METHOD: Participants included 598 general population adults who completed self-report measures designed to assess childhood physical abuse, perceptions of early and current social support, and risk factors for child physical abuse. Structural equation modeling was used to test and cross validate a model that included the direct effects of child physical abuse and early social support on child physical abuse risk, as well as mediated effects through an influence on adult perceptions of social support. RESULTS: Childhood physical abuse and early social support covaried, such that receipt of physical abuse was associated with lower levels of perceived early social support. Early support, but not child physical abuse, had an indirect effect (i.e., through current support) on child physical abuse risk. More specifically, levels of early support were directly related to adult perceptions of support, and adult perceptions of support were inversely associated with child physical abuse risk. Childhood physical abuse was directly related to child physical abuse risk. CONCLUSIONS: Low levels of early support may impact risk for child physical abuse by affecting perceptions of others as supportive in adulthood. The receipt of physical abuse in childhood, however, does not appear to impact perceptions of support in adulthood. Research is needed to identify additional factors that may explain the association between receipt of physical abuse in childhood and increased risk of child physical abuse in adulthood.     

Inclusion of pupils perceived as experiencing social and emotional behavioural difficulties (SEBD): affordances and constraints

This paper takes as its principal theme barriers to the inclusion of pupils perceived as experiencing social and emotional behavioural difficulties (SEBD) and how these might be overcome. It draws upon an evaluative case study of an initiative, devised by the author, to support pupils – the Support Group Initiative (SGI) – which was conducted over a five‐year period in a Scottish Secondary School situated in an area of multiple deprivation. The central focus of the discussion is the range of variables that impacted upon pupil outcomes, illustrating the ways in which these variables acted as affordances or constraints in the pursuit of inclusive practice. The paper takes as its starting point the contested nature of inclusion and introduces, briefly, the Scottish policy context as it pertains to inclusion before exploring the nature of the problem – the barriers to the inclusion of and the difficulties presented by the inclusion of pupils perceived as having SEBD, as discussed in the literature. The findings of the study are discussed in relation to central themes – the ethos of the Support Group; the process of re‐signification through which pupils are enabled to effect improvement; the classroom context; and wider variables relating to school policy, practice, ethos and the management of change. The paper concludes by exploring what inclusion has meant to the pupils involved within the intervention, summarising the affordances and constraints to its realisation, before reflecting upon the significance of the study.     

Disentangling life events, stress and social support: Implications for the primary prevention of child abuse and neglect

There is a growing body of literature linking stress and child abuse and neglect, but the relationship is not unambiguously supported by empirical data. Two considerations regarding Garbarino's ecological model of child abuse and neglect may explain this research problem. First, any of the predisposing factors, which are grouped into four levels called individual, familial, social, and cultural, may either positively or negatively affect the potential for child abuse and neglect depending upon the quality of social networks and social supports available to families. Second, these factors operate most importantly, not between the perception of stress and the act of abuse or neglect, but through the interpretation of whether a given life event is stressful or not. This clarification of the ecological model points the way to redefining interventions for the primary prevention of child abuse and neglect. Existing support systems can be strengthened in order to increase a family's ability to cope with untoward events before these become stressful. In addition, advocacy activities which support children and families in general can be major components in the primary prevention of child abuse and neglect.     

Validation of the perceived school bullying severity scale

Research on school bullying has tended to focus on its prevalence or frequency while ignoring its perceived severity. This study attempted to construct a perceived School Bullying Severity Scale (SBSS). The original 24-item instrument, revised from the Victim Scale of the School Bullying Scales, covered the four categories of physical, verbal, relational and cyber bullying. The partial credit model was used to conduct Rasch analysis with ConQuest software on data derived from two samples of Taiwanese secondary school students. Sample 1 and sample 2 consisted of 605 and 869 students, respectively. Three items were deleted after examining the quality of the data from sample 1. The reliability and validity of the 21 items on the final scale were verified using data from sample 2. Results demonstrated the reliability and validity of information collected by the SBSS. This study also found that secondary school students rated relational and cyber bullying as more severe than physical and verbal bullying. Differences between teachers’ and students’ perspectives on the perceived severity of various bullying behaviours as well as implications for preventing and intervening in bullying are discussed.     

Autonomy and adolescent social functioning: the moderating effect of risk

This study examined the moderating effect of risk on the relation between autonomy processes and family and adolescent functioning. The present sample comprised 131 adolescents from either a low-risk or high-risk social context, their mothers, and their peers. Observational ratings of autonomy processes within the mother-adolescent dyad were obtained, along with adolescent reports of the quality of the mother-adolescent relationship, and both adolescent and peer reports of the adolescent's functioning. Consistent with past research, in low-risk families, behavior undermining autonomy was negatively related to relationship quality, and adolescents' expressions of autonomy were linked with positive indices of social functioning. In high-risk families, however, undermining of autonomy was positively linked with mother-adolescent relationship quality, and adolescents' expressions of autonomy were linked with negative indices of social functioning. Results are interpreted as demonstrating the ways in which the developmental task of attaining autonomy in adolescence is systematically altered depending on the level of risk and challenge in the adolescent's social context.     

Measuring the severity of child maltreatment

OBJECTIVE: The purpose was to identify different operational definitions of maltreatment severity, and then to examine their predictive validity. METHOD: Children and their primary caregivers participating in a consortium of ongoing longitudinal studies were interviewed when they were approximately 4 and 8 years of age to assess behavior problems, and developmental and psychological functioning. Four different severity definitions were identified and applied to 519 children who were reported for alleged maltreatment between Birth and the Age 8 interview. A taxonomy for defining maltreatment characteristics (Barnett, Manly, & Cicchetti, 1993) was applied to Child Protective Service records to define severity as (a) Maximum Severity within each of five maltreatment types, (b) Overall Maximum Severity across the five types, (c) Total Severity or the sum of the maximum severity for each of five types, and (d) Mean Severity or the average severity for those types of maltreatment alleged, during each of two time periods-Birth to Age 4, and Age 4 to Age 8. RESULTS: Regression analyses that controlled for socio-demographic factors, early maltreatment (Birth to Age 4), prior functioning (Age 4), and site revealed that (a) all four severity definitions for maltreatment reports between Age 4 and Age 8 predicted Age 8 behavior problems, (b) Maximum Severity by Type and Mean Severity predicted adaptive functioning at Age 8, and (c) only Maximum Severity by Type was related to anger, at Age 8. Follow-up regression analyses indicated that only Maximum Severity by Type, specifically physical abuse, accounted for outcomes, beyond maltreatment occurrence versus non-occurrence. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that maltreatment severity definitions that preserve ratings within types of maltreatment may be the optimal approach to measure the severity of children's experiences.     

The trans-contextual model: perceived learning and performance motivational climates as analogues of perceived autonomy support

The trans-contextual model of motivation (TCM) proposes that perceived autonomy support in physical education (PE) predicts autonomous motivation within this context, which, in turn, is related to autonomous motivation and physical activity in leisure-time. According to achievement goal theory perceptions of learning and performance, motivational climate in PE can also affect autonomous motivation in PE. The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of an integrated approach of perceptions of motivational climate in PE by incorporating aspects of perceptions of motivational climate from achievement goal frameworks on autonomous motivation in PE within the TCM. High school students (N?=?274) completed self-report measures of perceived autonomy support, perceived learning, and performance motivational climate and autonomous motivation in PE. Follow-up measures of autonomous motivation in a leisure-time context were taken along with measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions from the theory of planned behaviour 1 week later. Self-reported physical activity behaviour was measured 5 weeks later. The results of the path analyses indicated that perceived learning climate was the strongest predictor of autonomous motivation in PE and leisure-time contexts and mediated the effect of perceived autonomy support on autonomous motivation in PE. Perceived performance climate showed no significant effect on autonomous motivation in PE and leisure-time. Results also confirmed the premises of TCM regarding the effect of autonomous motivation in leisure-time on leisure-time physical activity and the mediating role of the planned behaviour theory variables.     

Coping strategies and social support as mediators of consequences in child sexual abuse victims.

OBJECTIVE: The main objective of this study was to evaluate the mediator role of coping strategies and social support on the adaptation of children following CSA. Empirical studies indicate that short-term consequences of child sexual abuse (CSA) are multiple and varied (Kendall-Tackett, Williams, & Finkelhor, 1993; Wolfe & Birt, 1995). While abuse-related characteristics were first studied to explain the variability of CSA outcome, more recently, the influence of other variables such as coping strategies and social support have been considered. METHOD: Fifty sexually abused children aged between 7 and 12 participated in this study. The Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991) and the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1985) were used to measure victims' adjustment. Coping strategies were evaluated by the Self-Report Coping Scale (Causey & Dubow, 1992) and the children completed the Perceived Social Support (Harter, 1985). A French version of the History of Victimization (Wolfe, Gentile, & Bourdeau, 1987) was used to gather abuse-related characteristics from medical records. RESULTS: Results indicate that sexually abused children exhibit internalizing and externalizing behavior problems following CSA. Coping strategies and social support exert direct effects on victims' adjustment instead of the mediator influences originally expected. Among abuse-related variables, only the perpetrator's identity is directly related to internalizing symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The absence of mediational effects of coping and social support is discussed in light of the measures used and the cross-sectional nature of the study. Results highlight the importance of parental implication and the consideration of coping strategies in designing therapeutic interventions with this population.     

母亲社交指导与青少年同伴适应:一项来自皮肤电的证据

帮助青少年管理同伴压力,降低不良适应的风险,是当下学校教育者和父母都在思考的重要问题。有研究发现,父母在青少年面临同伴压力时会倾向于提供帮助和指导建议。但不同类型的社交指导建议(如参与性建议和自立性建议)对青少年同伴适应的影响并不相同。这可以部分地用青少年面临压力挑战和父母参与时存在的个体差异来解释。皮肤电水平反应(Skin Conductance Level Reactivity,简称SCLR)能反映出个体在家庭养育背景下应对不同环境线索时所作出的生理反应(如生理唤醒和抑制反应)。基于“生物一心理一社会”视角,青少年的自主神经系统活动可能与家庭因素相互作用,共同预测青少年的适应能力。