The IOC and the doping issue—An institutional discursive approach to organizational identity construction

To show why the 1998 doping scandals led to the establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency, this paper investigates how the IOC has created its organizational identity once confronted with the emergence of doping in sport. The paper endorses a new institutional understanding of organizations, which is combined with a critical discourse analytical framework. Through a systematic reading of the Olympic Review between 1960 and 2003 four main anti-doping discourses are outlined: health scientific, ethical, legal and educational discourses construct the meaning-providing horizon of IOC anti-doping commitment. The 1988 Ben Johnson doping incident is crucial for the understanding of the organizational changes occurring 10 years later. Immediately following the Seoul Olympic Games the IOC applies a warfare genre, which frames anti-doping as a declaration of war and constructs a narrative of the IOC as leading a successful battle against doping. The 1998 doping scandals reveal the opposite. Subsequently, WADA can be labelled IOC's institutionalization failure.     

A whitewashed curriculum? The construction of race in contemporary PE curriculum policy

Analyses of curricula in a range of countries show how they tend to reinforce, rather than challenge, popular theories of racism. To date, we know little about the contribution of physical education (PE) curriculum policy to the overall policy landscape. This paper examines the construction of race and racism in two national contexts (Norway and England) as a means of putting race and anti-racism on the PE policy research agenda. It adopts a critical whiteness perspective to analyse how whiteness, as a system of privilege, contributes to the racialisation of valued knowledge in PE and asks, who potentially benefits and/or is marginalised within the learning spaces available in the texts? The discourse analysis reveals that two discursive techniques of whiteness combine to privilege white, Eurocentric knowledge content. Unmarked white PE practices and students are constructed as universal, normative and contingent. As a result, non-white PE practices and students are positioned on the margins in contemporary policy texts. By revealing the racialisation processes evident in the texts, we aim to trouble the profession's taken-for-granted truths about race in PE as integral to working towards the development of an antiracist subject.     

‘Africa's Tournament'? The Branding Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup™

In 2010, South Africa became the first country on the African continent to host the FIFA World Cup. Crucially the hosting of such a prestigious tournament was seen as a chance to prove that this developing nation could host an event of this magnitude as efficiently as the developed economies who had hosted the previous editions of the event, such as Germany in 2006 and Korea and Japan in 2002. Significantly though, this flagship event was also promoted by FIFA as ‘Africa's Tournament' with South Africa encouraged to share the identity and success of 2010 with the entire African continent. Based on the findings from in-depth interviews conducted with event and destination stakeholders from national and regional South African Government departments, this article explores the 2010 tournament as a branding opportunity that was used to promote both the continent of Africa as well as the South African nation. Expanding upon previous studies in this area the challenges and successes of hosting the 2010 World Cup are examined as is the role of mega-events such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup in generating a nation and continent-wide branding legacy. Stakeholders specialising in sport event management, tourism, operations and communications reflect on the branding and exposure for both Africa and South Africa achieved as a result of the event and the degree to which this was coordinated and co-created between various stakeholders. Insights are also given as to the degree to which the branding gains achieved during the event have been leveraged post-2010. As such, this article offers an original socio-historic perspective on existing studies examining the impact of the 2010 tournament.     

The creatine content of Creatine Serum™ and the change in the plasma concentration with ingestion of a single dose

Three samples of Creatine Serum? ATP Advantage from Muscle Marketing USA, Inc. were assayed for creatine by two different techniques by four independent laboratories, and for creatinine by two different techniques by two laboratories. A further sample was assayed for phosphorylcreatine. Dry weight and total nitrogen were also analysed. Six male volunteers ingested in random order, over 3 weeks: (A) water; (B) 2.5?g creatine monohydrate (Cr?·?H₂O) in solution; and (C) 5?ml Creatine Serum? (reportedly containing an equivalent amount of Cr?·?H₂O). Blood samples were collected before and up to 8?h after each treatment and plasma was analysed for creatine and creatinine. Eight-hour urine samples were analysed for creatine. Ingestion of 2.5?g creatine monohydrate in solution resulted in a significant increase in plasma creatine (from 59.1±11.8?μmol?·?l^?1 to 245.3±74.6?μM μmol?·?l^?1; mean±s) and urinary creatine excretion. No increase in plasma or urinary creatine or creatinine was found on ingestion of Creatine Serum? or water. Analysis showed 5?ml of Creatine Serum? to contain <10?mg Cr?·?H₂O and approximately 90?mg creatinine. Phosphorylcreatine was not detectable and only a trace amount of phosphorous was present. Total nitrogen analysis ruled out significant amounts of other forms of creatine. We conclude that the trace amounts of creatine in the product would be too little to affect the muscle content even with multiple dosing.     

The Gendering of Physical Education in Hong Kong: East,West or Global?

How gender operates is a key factor in the ways in which physical education is organized, taught and experienced by students and teachers. This essay highlights the gendered contours of the history of physical education development in Hong Kong, its Chinese heritage and its colonial foundations – the persistent influence of British approaches to physical education teacher education and the promotion of sport. The paper is a collaborative work between Chinese-born and Western scholars. It examines the relative influences of Chinese attitudes towards gender roles and the active, sporting body and the continued impact of Western approaches to physical education and sport in a post-colonial society.     

The productive effect of power: (dis)pleasurable bodies materialising in and through the discursive practices of boys’ physical education

Background: Pleasure is often a key feature of school physical education (PE) and, indeed, a lot of students find pleasure in and through PE while others do not. However, pleasure is rarely considered to be of educational value in the subject [Pringle, R. (2010). “Finding Pleasure in Physical Education: A Critical Examination of the Educative Value of Positive Movement Affects.” Quest 62: 119–134]. Further, since pleasure is linked to power [Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977. New York: Pantheon; Gerdin, G., and R. Pringle. (2015). “The Politics of Pleasure: An Ethnographic Examination Exploring the Dominance of the Multi-Activity Sport-Based Physical Education Model.” Sport, Education and Society. doi:10.1080/13573322.2015.1019448] it is in fact not entirely straightforward to legitimise the educational value of PE in relation to pleasure.

Purpose: In this paper, we explore how a group of boys derive pleasures from their involvement in PE, but also how these power-induced pleasures are integral to gender normalisation processes. The findings presented are particularly discussed in terms of inclusive/exclusive pedagogical practices related to gender, bodies and pleasures.

Research setting and participants: The research setting was a single-sex, boys’ secondary school in Auckland, New Zealand. Participants in this study were 60 Year 10 (age 14–15) students from two PE classes.

Data collection and analysis: Using a visual ethnographic approach [Pink, S. (2007). Doing Visual Ethnography. London: Sage] involving observations and video recordings of boys participating in PE, the boys’ representations and interpretations of the visual data were explored during both focus groups and individual interviews. The data were analysed using (a visually oriented) discourse analysis [Foucault, M. (1998). “Foucault.” In Michel Foucault. Aesthetics, Method and Epistemology, edited by J. D. Faubion, 459–463. New York: The New Press; Rose, G. (2007). Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. London: Sage].

Findings: By elucidating the discursive practices of PE in this setting and employing (Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’. New York: Routledge] concept of ‘materialisation’, we suggest that boy’s bodies materialise as productive and pleasurable or displeasurable bodies through submitting/subjecting to certain bodily regimes, developing embodied mastery when it comes to certain sports, and displaying bodies in particular ways. The analysis indicate that the discursive practices of PE contribute to boys’ bodies materialising as pleasurable or displeasurable and the (re)production of gender in the subject as shaped by discourse and the productive effect of power.

Discussion and conclusions: In line with [Gard, M. (2008). “When a Boy’s Gotta Dance: New Masculinities, Old Pleasures.” Sport, Education and Society 13 (2): 181–193], we conclude that the focus on certain discursively constructed bodily practices at the same time continues to restrict the production of a diversity of bodily movement pleasures. Hence, traditional gender patterns are reproduced through a selection of particular sports/physical activities that all the students are expected to participate in. We propose that the ongoing constitution of privileged forms of masculinity, masculine bodies and masculine pleasures as related to fitness, health and sport and (certain) boys’ subsequent exercise of power in PE needs further critical examination.     

The media construction of the sports’ elite from the European perspective: an analysis of the European Symposium of Sports 2010

Since the first Olympic Games, the figure of the athlete has roused enormous passion. One may wonder if nowadays the cultural mechanisms that produce them are analogous and perform the same functions as in the past. This article aims to answer these questions. For this purpose, we have relied on the analysis of the discourse from different actors in the 2010 European Symposium of Sports “Thinking Sports, Transforming Society: The EU in favor of citizenship for the XXI Century”. The results will provide relevant information about the responsibility of the mass media in the production of a sports spectacle, the role of the big brands and the exemplarity of the sports’ elite. In this manner, the need was conveyed of producing a different view of sports, so that in the contest between humanistic values and materialistic values, those who contribute to the welfare of the citizens could achieve glory.     

Conquering the World: The ‘Martial’ Power of Japan Goes Global

Abstract

Throughout the twentieth century Japanese martial arts, or budo, in the West grew from a hardly visible practice for Japanese diasporas and a handful of Japanophiles to an integral part of Western culture. Today, when they have been joined by other cultural exports from Japan, and Karate has been recognized as an Olympic sport in the midst of the decline of traditional martial arts and the rise of Mixed Martial Arts culture, the question of what forces produce such powerful ‘waves’ of Japanese cultural expansion becomes relevant again. To answer this question, the article compares the forces behind the spread of three arguably most popular Japanese martial arts – Judo, Kendo, and Karate – in the West, mainly in America and Europe. Here I offer an analysis based on the division of these forces into those which ‘push’ Japanese culture beyond Japan’s borders (pushing forces) and those which stimulate its consumption in Western countries (pulling forces). Based on the results of the comparison, the article argues that there are certain repeating patterns in both types that form a unique mechanism of Japanese ‘martial’ expansion to the West, with the ‘pulling’ forces being just as, if not more, powerful, than the ‘pushing’ forces.     

Identity construction in professional football: the case of Brøndby IF

Professional football clubs exist in a complex environment consisting of multiple stakeholders. When a club is unable to fulfil what is expected of it, its stakeholders are usually quick to express their dissatisfaction. This constant exposure to critical voices, and the fact that clubs are deeply dependent on their stakeholders, not least financially, makes identity construction a very important task. Perceiving identity as a social process in which self-expressions and external stakeholder images interact, the purpose of this study is to examine how the Danish football club, Brøndby IF, constructs its identity. The analysis shows how Brøndby to some extent chooses to ignore external perceptions of the club, which leads to further criticism. The study suggests how football directors should prioritize to construct a well-balanced identity that includes both internal and external perceptions of the club in order to stay attractive to stakeholders and secure future collaboration and funding.     

Participants’ views of the potential of international youth football tournaments for development in the Global South

This paper investigates the potential of international youth football tournaments for youth development in the Global South. The tournaments under study were East Africa Cup in Tanzania, and Norway Cup in Norway. Through qualitative interviews with tournament participants, we addressed the following research question: What are the participant’s views of the potentials of Norway Cup and East Africa Cup in dealing with development issues facing youth in the Global South? Our findings demonstrate that all interviewees consider the tournaments potentially beneficial for youth development in the Global South. In the analysis, we identified four different categories, mostly representing positive outcomes of tournament participation. We argue that a functionalist neo-liberal notion of sport is visible in the data material. Thus, our findings correspond with Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) research showing how reproductions of the SDP functionalist discourse ‘continue to be leveraged through sport and sealed into the success story of SDP’.     

The emergence of a new logic? The theorizing of a new practice in the highly institutionalized context of Swedish voluntary sport

The purpose of this article is to contribute to the understanding of the emergence and change in institutional logics by analyzing the theorization (e.g., Greenwood, Suddaby, & Hinings, 2002) of a new and distinctly “different” practice in Swedish voluntary sport: drive-in sport. The article builds on data from 29 interviews with key actors involved in the organizing of drive-in sport in four municipalities. The findings show that two problems were constructed to legitimize drive-in sport: norm-breaking behavior displayed by youth during weekend nights, and organized sport's failure to live up to a sport-for-all ideal. The findings also show that it is perceived that in order for drive-in sport to be the solution to both these problems, the activities need to be arranged in a particular way. The findings are discussed in relation to recent developments in Swedish organized sport as an institutional context. Additionally, the discussion puts forth the value of the theorization concept in terms of furthering our understanding of the social-constructionist interpretive processes that underpin the broader processes of change documented in previous sport-related studies of change in institutional logics.     

Scoring on and off the field?: The impact of Australia's inclusion in the Asian Football Confederation

The case follows Australia's move from the Oceania Football Federation (OFC) to the Asian Football Confederation (AFC). The case explores the impact of Australia's inclusion on other AFC member nations and highlights that Australia's relative success in the AFC may not be perceived as positive by all stakeholders within the AFC. The case considers the effect of Australia's inclusion in the AFC on the AFC in general, and also on both the sport of soccer in Australia, and the broader Australian economy.     

Actors who can’t play in the sports film: exploring the cinematic construction of sports performance

The sports film often focuses upon character psychology and narrative in the cinematic capturing and construction of sport and sports performance. However, the limited attention given to the role of the actor’s body threatens to compromise this seamless dramatic structure of the narrative, not to mention viewer identification with the protagonist, thus leading to inadequate sporting technique that fails to achieve verisimilitude. This paper looks to address the limitations in the actor’s bodily performance, by rethinking the relationship between the actor’s physical portrayal and their cinematic construction. I argue that cinematic techniques should function as an extension of the actor’s body, thus creating a more seamless fusion between the two. Adopting such a method would facilitate a more heightened representation of sports performance, while contributing to the unfolding of the plot through the bodily interactions between the actors during the spectacle of sports sequences.     

Measuring the perception of the teachers’ autonomy-supportive behavior in physical education: Development and initial validation of a multi-dimensional instrument

This research aimed to develop and validate an instrument to assess the students’ perceptions of the teachers’ autonomy-supportive behavior by the multi-dimensional scale (Multi-Dimensional Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Physical Education). The participants were 1,476 students aged 12- to 15-years-old. In Study 1, a pool of 37 items was generated based on past literature and feedback from students and academic experts. In Study 2, the factorial structure of the questionnaire was tested using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The confirmatory factor analysis yielded a final 15-item three-factor solution of the Multi-Dimensional Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Physical Education, covering organizational, procedural, and cognitive dimensions of perceived autonomy support. In Study 3, the incremental validity of the Multi-Dimensional Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Physical Education was supported. The results provided initial evidence for the reliability and validity of the Multi-Dimensional Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Physical Education, as well as its invariance across gender and age. Suggestions for the use of the scale and further research are discussed.     

Education for the Aesthetics of Sport in Higher Education in the Sports Sciences – The Particular Case of the Portuguese-Speaking Countries

In this paper it is argued why and how the aesthetics of sport should be included in higher education curricula in sport sciences. It is claimed that within the scope of philosophy of sport, aesthetics has its own role to play, since it provides a ‘sensible knowledge’ that should not be undervalued, and philosophers of sport must be aware of this. Providing examples from Portugal and Brazil, it is enunciated how these countries have been taking seriously and incorporated (if only partially) inquiry and education concerning the aesthetics of sport. Through an interpretative analysis, it is argued about the adoption of the aesthetics of sport in academic curricula and also in the syllabus of sport philosophy and aesthetics of sport courses in the context of higher education in the Faculty of Sport at the University of Porto.     

The social construction of higher grade physical education: the impact on teacher curriculum decision‐making

This paper focuses upon the physical education experiences of girls in Key Stages 3 and 4, drawing upon data from a qualitative study based in three contrasting secondary comprehensive schools in England. We suggest that stereotypical assumptions about the physical activity interests of particular ethnic groups and about girls in general represent an oversimplification of complex issues. We discuss the intersection of race and gender within the experiences of a subsample of pupils and conclude that several issues commonly raised from the perspective of pupil culture are, equally, gender issues relevant to some girls from all ethnic groups. We suggest that diversity within particular cultural groups tends to be underestimated and that a physical education curriculum which purports to support inclusion should address this important issue. Finally, we suggest that inconsistencies and conflicts between teacher and student views, while reflecting the significant changes in attitudes towards gender issues which have characterised educational practice since the 1970s, currently limit opportunities for girls from all ethnic groups in some schools.     

Teacher or coach? How logics from the field of sports contribute to the construction of knowledge in physical education teacher education pedagogical discourse through educational texts

The main purpose of this paper is to focus attention on educational texts as central conveyers of discourses of sport into physical education teacher education (PETE) and by extension into physical education (PE). A considerable volume of research suggests that sport and games continue to be dominant elements of curriculum and practice in contemporary PE. Given the issues of masculinity, physicality and performativity resulting from such continuing sport-focused PE practice, it is relevant to question how such practices are discursively produced or reproduced. In this regard, one area has received only scant attention, namely the potential influence of educational texts used in PETE. Using the theoretical frameworks provided by Michel Foucault, Basil Bernstein and Norman Fairclough, this paper considers educational texts as important contributors to the discursive construction of knowledge in PETE, and thus also as a central resource for studying—and challenging—those discourses that influence on the PE teachers' perceptions of PE and their choices when it comes to the organisation of the PE class. This paper is based on a thorough examination of Danish PETE course documents listing educational texts prescribed by teacher educators for PETE programmes in Denmark. Several of the prescribed educational texts are published by private organisations with sporting interests, such as Team DK and The Sports Confederation of Denmark. This paper conducts a discourse analysis of these texts in order to illuminate how specific social rules regulate their content and involve specific constructions of the learner, the teacher and the relation between them. The paper's findings underline the need for an increased awareness among those who engage in PE practices of the ways in which discourses shape our thinking, and of the potential dangers that lie in the transfer of particular meanings and values as they are constructed in educational texts.