Interactions of black inner-city mothers with their newborn infants.

Interactions of 45 black inner-city mothers with their healthy full-term newborn infants were observed during a bottle-feeding on the third day after birth. An exhaustive catalog of some 100 mother and infant behaviors was used to describe objectively the interactions of mothers and infants. In addition to being observed with their mothers, infants were examined with the Rosenblith scale. The infants' birth weights, birth order, and sex and maternal medication were found to affect the infants' behaviors and/or the patterns of mother-infant interactions.     

Teaching low-income mothers to teach their children

The effectiveness of the Avance Parent-Child Education Program in teaching low-income, Mexican American mothers of infants to teach their own children was examined. In two program waves, 486 mother-child dyads participated in program or control groups. Significant program effects were found on Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) scores, on view of self as teacher, and on videotaped mother-child interactions. Program participants became highly skilled teachers of their young children, and the results continued to be present at a 1-year follow-up.     

Disposition and health outcomes among infants born to mothers with no prenatal care

ObjectiveThis study assessed infant disposition and health outcomes among offspring born to mothers without prenatal care, based on maternal characteristics and the reason for lack of prenatal care (i.e., denial of pregnancy, concealment of pregnancy, primary substance use, financial barriers and multiparity).MethodsA retrospective record review was completed at an urban academic medical center. Subjects were women who presented at delivery or immediately postpartum with no history of prenatal care (N = 211), and their infants.ResultsInfants of mothers with substance use problems had the highest rates of referral to child protective services and out-of-home placement at discharge, though mothers with other reasons for no prenatal care also experienced both referral and placement. Infants born to mothers using substances experienced the highest rates of neonatal intensive care unit admission, and the lowest mean birth weight.ConclusionsThough those without prenatal care experienced a variety of adverse outcomes, substance use problems were most frequently correlated with adverse infant outcomes. Mothers who either had lost custody of other children or with substance use problems were at highest risk of losing custody of their infants. Those who denied or concealed their pregnancy still frequently retained custody.Practice implicationsAmong mothers without prenatal care, those with substance use problems were least likely to retain custody of their infant at hospital discharge. Custody status of the mother's other children was also independently associated with infant custody. Mothers who denied or concealed their pregnancy still often retained custody. Referrals of mothers with no prenatal care for psychiatric evaluation were rare, though referrals to social work were frequent. Child protective services occasionally did not investigate referrals in the denial and concealment groups. Healthcare providers should be aware of the medical and psychological needs of this vulnerable population of infants and mothers.     

An intersubjective developmental perspective on interactions between deaf and hearing mothers and their deaf infants

Most research into interactions between mothers and their infants with hearing impairments focuses on mothers' and infants' behaviors separately, speculating about the interplay among these behaviors and their effects on child development. In the present article, an intersubjective developmental theory focusing on the development of the "interworld" between deaf and hearing mothers and their deaf infants is used to integrate and interpret the seemingly incoherent research on early mother-deaf child interaction. Inspired by Stern's work (e.g., Stern, 1985), the intersubjective developmental theory distinguishes four stages in the development of intersubjectivity: emerging (birth-2 months), physical (2-8 months), existential (8-13 months), and symbolic (13 months and older), each characterized by a different type of mother-infant interaction. The integration of research findings on early mother-deaf child interaction into these four developmental stages offers new perspectives that can advance research and resolve certain early-intervention issues.     

Fathers' involvement in the care of their infants and their attributions of cognitive competence to infants

The relation between fathers' involvement in the care of their infants and their attributions of cognitive-social skills to infants was investigated in this study. 160 pairs of parents of 9-month-old infants were interviewed. On the average, fathers were available to their infants 2.75 hours per weekday and spent 45-50 min interacting with them. They performed 1 caretaking activity per day, and took sole responsibility for the infant only about once in 10 days. Results indicate that fathers who are less involved in child care attribute lesser competence to infants than relatively more involved fathers, that fathers in general attribute lesser competence to infants than mothers, and that the more involved a father is in infant care, the less difference there is between his attributions and those of his wife's. These results raise the possibility that involvement in care and perception of infants as cognitively competent are mutually reinforcing.     

The psychological significance of secondary sexual characteristics in nine- to eleven-year-old girls

82 9-11-year-old girls were seen in order to study the onset of puberty as represented by breast and pubic hair growth. Girls filled out self-report scales, mothers rated their daughters' breast and pubic hair development using schematic representations of the Tanner stages, and height was measured by a nurse practitioner. Breast growth, but not pubic hair growth, was expected to be associated with a positive body image, positive peer relationships, superior adjustment, and the rating of adult roles as important (marriage, children, and careers). These expectations were confirmed for all but the adult role measures. Controlling for pubic hair growth did not alter the findings for breast development. Associations with height also were examined. Height was linked to superior adjustment and career importance. These findings are discussed in terms of possible roles that different pubertal events may play in the self-definitions of young adolescents as well as the meaning of various physical changes to the girl and to others.     

Following their companions as a form of exploration for human infants

Infants' following of other persons, often considered a measure of attachment, qualified as a form of exploration. The results of the first experiment indicated that following can be a means of investigating novel leaders: 16 9--12-month-old infants were as likely to follow an unfamiliar woman as they were the parent and were reliably more likely to follow a moving toy. The second and third experiments assessed the extent to which the experience of following familiar persons promotes learning about the environment. Infants who followed their mothers to 1 place were more likely later to investigate a similar place than those who initially either locomoted independently (experiment 2) or were transported by their mothers (experiment 3). The findings suggested that infants' transactions with the environment need not be considered antithetical to their social behavior.     

A randomized controlled trial of a home-visiting intervention aimed at preventing relationship problems in depressed mothers and their infants

This study examined the effect of a mother–baby intervention on the quality of mother–child interaction, infant–mother attachment security, and infant socioemotional functioning in a group of depressed mothers with infants aged 1–12 months. A randomized controlled trial compared an experimental group ( n = 35) receiving the intervention (8–10 home visits) with a control group ( n = 36) receiving parenting support by telephone. There were assessments pre, post, and follow-up after 6 months. The intervention had positive effects on the quality of mother–infant interaction. Infants in the experimental group had higher scores for attachment security and for one aspect of socioemotional functioning, namely, competence. The intervention proved successful in preventing deterioration of the quality of mother–child interaction.     

Intervention with premature human infants.

Stimulation has been given to young infants to prevent the development disabilities often associated with prematurity. A review of these experimental programs reveals a lack of knowledge as to the ecology of the premature infant. This is indicated in the assumption that premature infants are sensorily deprived and by the arbitrary differences in the nature of stimulation techniques. Despite various problems in methodological and outcome assessment, stimulated infants tend to perform at higher levels than control-group infants on measures of sensorimotor and development. It is suggested that future research should be directed toward specifying the environment and processing capacities of the premature infant, and that intervention studies should make use of the 4-group design proposed by Solomon and Lessac (1968).     

A scale for home visiting nurses to identify risks of physical abuse and neglect among mothers with newborn infants

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to construct and test the reliability (utility, internal consistency, interrater agreement) and the validity (internal validity, concurrent validity) of a scale for home visiting social nurses to identify risks of physical abuse and neglect in mothers with a newborn child. METHOD: A 71-item scale was constructed based on a literature review and focus group sessions with social nurses and paraprofessionals who had experience with underprivileged families. This scale was applied in a random sample of 40 home visiting social nurses, who collected data in a sample of 373 nonabusive and 18 abusive/neglectful mothers with a newborn child. RESULTS: Items with prevalence rates below 5% and items making no significant difference between maltreating and non-maltreating mothers were omitted. The final version contained 20 items. This scale showed high internal consistency (alpha = .92) and high interrater reliability (r = .97). Exploratory factor analysis yielded a three-factor solution: Isolation (8 items, explaining 62.17% of the common variance), Psychological complexity (6 items, 18.86%), and Communication problems (6 items, 8.41%). Scores on Communication problems and Isolation significantly predicted scores on a social deprivation scale, which significantly distinguished maltreating from non-maltreating mothers. Mothers scoring high on Communication problems or Isolation obtained higher scores for social deprivation than low-scoring mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Home visiting nurses can identify risks for physical abuse and neglect among mothers with a newborn infant by focusing on signs of social isolation, distorted communication and psychological problems.     

The evidence base for the cues program for mothers of very low birth weight infants: an innovative approach to reduce anxiety and support sensitive interaction

Very low birth weight (VLBW) infants, born weighing less than 1,500 g, are at risk for several developmental problems. Consequently, there has been interest in developing intervention programs to prevent such problems. This article describes the empirical evidence that guided the development of an innovative, multicomponent intervention program for mothers of VLBW infants, as well as the program content and features. Based on the evidence, the program was designed to include six sessions and commence shortly after birth to reduce maternal psychological distress during the infant's hospitalization in the neonatal intensive care unit and to promote sensitive mother-infant interaction. The program incorporates various learning activities, including written materials, observational exercises, discussion, and video feedback.     

Predictors of mothers' use of spanking with their infants

OBJECTIVES: This study describes mothers who report spanking their infants in the first 13 months of life. METHODS: Two hundred forty-six (246) mothers were interviewed in the Mother-Baby Unit of a large university-affiliated hospital in a large southeastern city of the United States. Ninety-three percent (93%) of those mothers were reinterviewed in their homes when infants were 6-13 months of age. RESULTS: Younger mothers, those who endorsed fewer alternatives to corporal punishment, and those who experienced their infants as "difficult" were significantly more likely to spank their infants. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest the importance of more anticipatory guidance from physicians, nurses, social workers, and other professionals about discipline in the first few months of life, particularly given the risks associated with spanking infants and popular support for corporal punishment.     

The collaborative language learning attributes of cyber face-to-face interaction: the perspectives of the learner

This article examines the degrees of collaborative language learning that were supported in cyber face-to-face interaction. The concept of “cyber face-to-face” is used here to encapsulate the kind of environment in which a combination of real-time oral/aural, visual, and text-based interaction happens simultaneously via the various features in an advanced Synchronous Learning Management System (SLMS). The study discusses the results of an evaluation of the five features, namely, the interactive whiteboard, the text chat, the group cyber face-to-face classrooms, the audio, and the video, in an SLMS called 3C. Thirty-three students from an online Chinese/English interpreting course participated in this study. Survey data indicate that collaborative learning can be effectively facilitated in a cyber face-to-face environment, although the degrees of collaboration vary among the five features evaluated. Recommendations for maximizing the collaborative learning potentials of a cyber face-to-face environment are also put forward.     

Task-related variation in communication of mothers and their sons with learning disability

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether mother-child communication patterns vary as a function of the type of the task. Groups of learning disabled (LD=30) and normally achieving boys (NLD=30) were videotaped interacting with their mothers in two different tasks. The children were matched for age (8 to 11 year-olds) and for parent’s SES. The results indicated that the teaching task differentiated the groups more than did the story task. Academic character of the teaching task increased mothers’ task involvement in both groups. Mothers of the LD group showed, however, significantly more dominance and expressed less emotionality while teaching their child. Mothers’ interaction partly followed from their children’s behaviour on this task. The children with LD did not cooperate with their mothers and were not emotionally involved in the teaching task as highly as were the normally achieving children. Corresponding features of interaction were not found for the LD group in the story task. Consistency of children’s communication across the tasks was significant in the LD group. The normally achieving boys were more responsive to changes in task conditions showing different behavior as a function of task.     

Infant-mother face-to-face interaction: age and gender differences in coordination and the occurrence of miscoordination

To evaluate the extent to which infants and mothers are able to coordinate their behavior, the interactions of 54 mother-infant pairs--18 each at 3, 6, and 9 months of age--were videotaped. Coordination was evaluated with 2 measures: (1) matching--the extent to which mother and infant engage in the same behavior at the same time; and (2) synchrony--the extent to which mother and infant change their behavior with respect to one another. Mother-infant pairs increase their degree of coordination with infant age, but the proportion of time they are coordinated is small. Mother-son pairs spend more time in coordinated states than mother-daughter pairs. The results suggest that interactions be characterized in terms of their movement from coordinated to miscoordinated states rather than only in terms of their degree of coordination. The gender differences are discussed in terms of their importance for the developmental differences in females and males.     

Learning by teaching face-to-face: the contributions of preparing-to-teach,initial-explanation,and interaction phases

Teaching other students in a face-to-face manner has been shown to effectively foster both one’s own and their learning. This study experimentally investigated whether and how tutors and tutees academically benefit from three phases of face-to-face teaching: preparing-to-teach, initial-explanation, and interaction phases. Japanese undergraduates (n = 80) acted as tutors or tutees in peer tutoring. After studying with the expectation of teaching face-to-face or taking a test (the preparing-to-teach phase), tutor participants provided tutee participants with initial instructional explanations, without asking or answering questions (the initial-explanation phase), and then engaged in a question-and-answer period (the interaction phase). Tutor and tutee participants learned better by providing and receiving higher-quality explanations in the initial-explanation and interaction phases. Face-to-face teaching vs. test expectancy had no effects on the quality of tutor participants’ explanations or their learning outcomes. The results suggest that both the initial-explanation and interaction phases contribute to learning by teaching face-to-face, whereas the preparing-to-teach phase does not.

     

Modeling referential actions in 6- to 18-month-old infants: a precursor to symbolic understanding

Social precursors to symbolic understanding of pictures were examined with 100 infants ages 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 months. Adults demonstrated 1 of 2 stances toward pictures and objects (contemplative or manipulative), and then gave items to infants for exploration. For pictures, older infants (12, 15, and 18 months) emulated the adult's actions following both types of demonstration trials. For objects, infants did not emulate actions following either stance at any age. The findings suggest that infants enlist their imitative learning skills in the context of learning the conventions of action on pictorial symbols. The data are interpreted as pointing to the importance of social learning in developing an understanding of the referential function of pictorial symbols.     

Sexual health discussions between African-American mothers and mothers of Latino descent and their children

We examined approaches used by African-American mothers and mothers of Latino descent for informal sex-related discussions with their children to inform sexually transmitted infection (STI)/HIV intervention development efforts. We recruited mothers (of children aged 12–15) from youth service agencies and a university in southern California. Fourteen focus groups were conducted: eight with African-American mothers (n = 31) and six with mothers of Latino descent (n = 24). Data were transcribed, coded for most common themes by four of the authors and reviewed for differences by gender of child. Four key themes emerged when focusing on parent–child discussions about sex: (1) sexual activity discussions took place for both sons and daughters; (2) protection from STI/HIV and pregnancy was a key topic; (3) the use of a direct, honest approach was preferred by mothers; and (4) seizing the moment was important for discussion opportunities. These data help broaden our understanding about the strategies used by African-American mothers and mothers of Latino descent for sexual health discussions with their sons and daughters. Evaluations of these for their potential impact on youth sexual health outcomes are warranted. The data can also contribute to the development of new culturally tailored parent–child communication strategies and HIV prevention interventions for young people of colour.