On practising in physical education: outline for a pedagogical model

Background: Models-based approaches to physical education have in recent years developed as a way for teachers and students to concentrate on a manageable number of learning objectives, and align pedagogical approaches with learning subject matter and context. This paper draws on Hannah Arendt’s account of vita activa to map existing approaches to physical education as oriented towards: (a) health and exercise, (b) sport and games, and (c) experience and exploration.

Purpose: The aim of the paper is to outline a new pedagogical model for physical education: a practising model. We argue that the form of human activity related to practising is not well represented in existing orientations and models. To sustain this argument, we highlight the most central aspects of practising, and at the same time describe central features of the model.

Relevance and implications: The paper addresses pedagogical implications the practising model has for physical education teachers. Central learning outcomes and teaching strategies related to four essential and ‘non-negotiable’ features of the practising model are discussed. These strategies are: (1) acknowledging subjectivity and providing meaningful challenges, (2) focusing on content and the aims of practising, (3) specifying and negotiating standards of excellence and (4) providing adequate time to practising.

Conclusion: The practising model has the potential to inform new perspectives on pedagogical approaches, and renew and improve working methods and learning practices, in physical education.     

动作和运动在儿童早期心理发展中的作用

儿童动作发展是发展心理学一个十分重要的课题。动作是人类最基本，也最重要的发展领域，而运动是实现动作发展的基本途经之一。对人类个体发展，特别是对儿童早期发展阶段(婴幼儿期)来说，动作发展比书面语言等符号化领域更基本，也更重要。当前早期教育实践中一个极为普遍存在，也是非常危险的倾向是过分强调抽象符号系统的作用，这种危险在于以所谓早期智力开发的名义压缩了婴幼儿动作和感觉发展的空间，同时也在相当程度上剥夺了他们通过动作主动建构自身经验的机会。     

学校体育课程中开发定向运动内容的可行性研究

运用文献资料法、问卷调查法、专家访谈法和数理统计法,对国内部分高校、中学开展定向运动教学、训练和竞赛现状的若干指标进行了调查研究,对其可行性进行讨论,认为应进一步深化学校体育改革,挖掘定向运动潜力,开发自然环境资源,在各级各类学校推广定向运动。     

Situating cultural diversity in movement. A case study on physical education teacher education in Norway

There is a growing body of research on cultural diversity, discrimination and racism in physical education teaching and practice. However, although ‘cultural diversity’ is a central concern in research, curriculum and policies of higher education, it is not clear how and in what ways students and teachers should consider cultural diversity. Drawing on qualitative interviews with teachers and students in a Norwegian physical education teacher education (PETE) programme, we investigate how and in what ways students and teachers regard cultural diversity in that context. We suggest that cultural diversity is not sufficiently understood when it is assumed that knowledge about particular positions or identity categories (white, black, minority, majority) is fixed. Our findings indicate that cultural diversity is visible in movement and in bodily resonance between people. These findings present a strong argument for recognition of the relational, embodied and social aspect of cultural diversity in PE.     

Associations between fundamental movement skill competence,physical activity and psycho-social determinants in Hong Kong Chinese children

Associations between fundamental movement skills (FMS), perceived competence, enjoyment and physical activity (PA) have not been widely investigated among Chinese school children. We hypothesised that FMS would be directly related to self-reported and objectively measured PA, and indirectly related to these outcomes via perceived physical and movement skill competence, and enjoyment. Participants were 763 primary school children (age = 9.3 ± 1.7 years; 474 girls) across grades. FMS were measured for a subsample (n = 603) using Test of Gross Motor Development-2. PA using accelerometers was obtained from this subgroup (n = 238). All participating children completed a questionnaire measuring their PA participation, enjoyment, and perceived physical and movement skill competence. Structural equation modelling revealed positive associations between locomotor skills and perceived movement skill competence (β = .11, 95% CI [.001, .22]), and between perceived movement skill competence and objectively measured PA (β = .59, 95% CI [.04, 1.14]). Perceived physical competence and enjoyment mediated the association between locomotor skills and self-reported PA (β = .08, 95% CI [.02, .12]), but not objectively measured PA. Given inconsistent findings for subjective and objective measures of PA, further mediation analyses of the association between FMS and PA may be warranted.     

Effects of a motivational climate intervention on state anxiety,self-efficacy,and skill development in physical education

Abstract

The objective of the present study was to test the effects of TARGET premises on state anxiety, self-efficacy, and sport skill development. A total of 317 high school students with a mean age of 13.9 years (s=0.76) were assigned either to an intervention group or a control group. The triple jump and the Baryshnikov shot put techniques were taught to both groups in 10 teaching units. In the intervention group the teachers employed the TARGET structures, while in the control group the command style was used. Students completed pre- and post-intervention measures of state anxiety and self-efficacy just before execution of the two techniques. Motor skill development was evaluated by both absolute performance (in centimetres) and technical execution of the tasks. The results of repeated-measures analyses of variance indicated that the intervention group reported higher triple jump self-efficacy and better technical execution of the shot put than the control group. No intervention effects were observed for the anxiety responses. Our findings provide partial evidence for positive effects of a task-involving motivational climate on sport skill development and performance-related states.     

Motor coordination,physical activity and fitness as predictors of longitudinal change in adiposity during childhood

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of motor coordination (MC), physical fitness (PF) and physical activity (PA) on the development of subcutaneous adiposity in a sample of children followed longitudinally from 6 to 10 years of age. Participants were 142 girls and 143 boys. Height, weight, and the triceps and subscapular skinfolds were measured annually between the ages of 6 and 10 years. PA was estimated with the Godin–Shephard questionnaire. MC was evaluated with the Körperkoordination Test für Kinder (KTK) test battery, and PF was assessed with four Fitnessgram tests: curl-ups (CU), push-ups (PU), trunk-lifts (TL) and one mile run/walk (MRW). Hierarchical linear modelling with MC, PF items and PA as predictors of the sum of two skinfolds (SKF) was used. The results showed that boys and girls differed significantly in SKF at baseline (girls: 19.7 mm; boys: 16.6 mm). Three PF items (CU, PU and MRW) and MC had a positive influence on SKF. For each unit improvement in CU, PU, MRW and MC, SKF was reduced by 0.06, 0.04, 0.06 and 0.12 mm, respectively. In conclusion, motor coordination, muscular strength and endurance, and aerobic endurance attenuated the accumulation of subcutaneous adipose tissue during childhood.     

高校体育专业学生运动损伤的调查分析

对体育专业学生的运动损伤情况进行了调查，探讨学生运动损伤发生的特点及规律，有针对性地提出如何减少与预防运动损伤的措施和建议。     

三种体育教学模式对高校一年级男生产生影响的实验研究

高校的公共体育教学过程中，对大学一年级男生的教学有三种不同的模式，且在教学目标的侧重点上存在着较大的分歧。为探讨高校体育教学中适用于大学一年级男生的教学目标，通过教学实验，分析不同的教学模式所产生的影响，结果表明以发展身体素质为主的教学所带来的效果最好。     

Knowing in primary physical education in the UK: negotiating movement culture

This paper aims to understand how pupils and teachers actions-in-context constitute being-a-pupil and being-a-teacher within a primary school physical education (PE) movement culture. Dewey and Bentley's theory of transaction, which views organism-in-environment-as-a-whole, enables the researcher to explore how actions-in-ongoing activities constitute and negotiate PE movement culture. Video footage from seven primary school PE lessons from a school in the West Midlands in the UK was analysed by focusing upon the ends-in-view of actions as they appeared through the educational content (what) and pedagogy (how) of the recorded PE experiences. Findings indicated that the movement culture within the school was a monoculture of looks-like-sport characterised by the privileging of the functional coordination of cooperative action. Three themes of pupils' and teachers' negotiation of the movement culture emerged U-turning, Knowing the game and Moving into and out of games. This movement culture required teachers to ensure pupils looked busy and reproduced cooperative looks-like-sport actions. In fulfilling this role, they struggled to negotiate between their knowledge of sport-for-real and directing pupils towards educational ends-in-view within games activities. Simply being good at sports was not a prerequisite for pupils' success in this movement culture. In order to re-actualise their knowledge of sport, pupils were required to negotiate the teacher's ‘how’ and ‘what’ by exploring what constituted cooperative actions within the spatial and social dimensions of the activities they were set. These findings suggest that if PE is to be more than just the reproduction of codified sport, careful adjustment and consideration of ends-in-view is of great importance. Without regard for the latter there is potential to create significant complexity for both teachers and pupils beyond that required by learning and performing sport.     

Transactions in primary physical education in the UK: a smorgasbord of looks-like-sport

Background: Crum proposes the term ‘movement culture’ as a means to best understand the relationships between PE and wider movement practices. Learning within movement culture is practical and embodied, and integral to the cultural and institutional contexts within which PE is situated. Purpose: Using visual data gathered from PE lessons within a UK primary school this paper aims to identify movement cultures across the observed PE lessons, and understand how these movement cultures are shaped and maintained by analysing how teachers and pupils' actions-in-on-going-events make the movement cultures something ‘in-common’. Participants, research design and data collection: A mixture of Year 5 and 6 PE lessons were video recorded within a primary school in the West Midlands. Careful attention was paid to the ethical considerations involved in the collection and storage of the data. Data analysis: By dissolving the dualism between an individual and their environment, Dewey and Bentley's (1949/1991) transactional theory of learning supports an analysis of action in context. Application of this theory enables the researcher to explore actions-in-on-going activities and understand how this action shapes the movement culture within which it occurs. In this process we did not use theory to deduce the participants' intensions or potential changes in their cognitive structures; rather it was the functions' actions constituted in the observed situation, which lead the analysis. Findings: The existence of a multi-activity idea of sampling different sports within this study of primary PE amounted to eating from a smorgasbord where the flavours of the dishes initially looked different, but actually tasted the same. Each dish was differentiated by the use of contrasting equipment, physical locations and named activities. In reality what was realised was a diluted, repetitive and overriding flavour of looks-like-sport. Pupils were tasked with actions which functioned to produce a stage managed show of controlled activity. This was supplemented by their compliance to strict behaviour codes and by attempting to make highly cooperative tasks and games work. This was aided by the adoption and acceptance of different roles. Succeeding within this movement culture demanded an implicit understanding of the need to coordinate actions with others cooperatively. Conclusions: The standout flavour within this smorgasbord involved gymnastics, where the removal of competition and provision of space for pupils to re-actualise their knowledge, created an interesting blend of pupil engagement, sustained physical activity, creativity, inclusion and cooperation. These interesting flavours may have been curtailed by a need to replicate movements acceptable to doing gymnastics-for-real and suggests that other forms of looks-like-sport may have the potential to elicit similar action. Continued investigation of the directions of actions-in-context-in-PE-settings would aid our understanding of the creation, nature and reproduction of learning experiences within this looks-like-sport movement culture. More specifically, analysis of the educational content and pedagogy of the recorded PE lessons within this school would support our understanding of how teachers and pupils negotiate the complex mix of educational, sport and health discourses that constitute the looks-like-sport movement culture.     

体育新课程中的运动技能教学

针对体育新课程实施中淡化运动技能教学的误区，分析体育新课程中运动技能内容的多样性、健康性、差异性，以及运动技能学习的整体价值，提出了新课程运动技能教学策略是：重新认识运动技能包含的内容，开发与利用好运动技能课程资源，结合学生生活实际和经验、学生差异进行运动技能民主化教学，做好运动技能学习的评价。     

学校体育各层面目标的衔接

对学校体育学科中各层次的主目标进行了理论分析与讨论。结果认为：现有的学校体育学科理论体系中各概念层次的目标表述不清，且相互混淆；从新课程中的“运动参与目标、身体健康目标、心理健康目标、运动技能目标、社会适应目标”分离出“运动技能”目标，并以此目标对各层次目标进行了串联，构建了相互之间的关系，说明了学校体育各层次主目标的衔接性。     

Validity and feasibility of an obstacle course to assess fundamental movement skills in a pre-school setting

Failure to master age-appropriate fundamental movement skills (FMS) at a young age can limit motor skill competence affecting health. Assessments often have issues with feasibility and implementation in a field setting. As such, the purpose of this study was to investigate the validity and feasibility of the Athletic Skills Track (AST), in a pre-school setting. For the validation study sixty-five 3–6 year old children (25 boys and 40 girls) from five pre-schools across Adelaide, Australia participated. Correlations and linear regression analysis (adjusted for age and gender) were used to investigate the association between the time to complete the AST and the raw score of the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). For the feasibility study pre-school staff completed a semi-structured interview regarding the feasibility of the AST. The AST took less than a minute per child and the TGMD-2 around 20 minutes for two children. There was a strong negative correlation (r = ?0.63, p < 0.01) between the AST scores and the TGMD-2 scores. All five staff reported strengths of the AST to be its short administration time, setup and appropriateness. These results suggest that the AST could be a feasible and valid method of FMS assessment in Australian pre-schools.     

Children's motivation in elementary physical education: an expectancy-value model of achievement choice

This study examined children's motivation in elementary physical education within an expectancy-value model developed by Eccles and her colleagues. Four hundred fourteen students in second and fourth grades completed questionnaires assessing their expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values, and intention for future participation in physical education. Results indicated that expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values were clearly distinguishable from one another across physical education and throwing. The two constructs were related to each other positively. Children's intention for future participation in physical education was positively associated with their subjective task values and/or expectancy-related beliefs. Younger children had higher motivation for learning in physical education than older children. Gender differences emerged and the findings provided empirical evidence supporting the validity of the expectancy-value model in elementary physical education.     

Poetry in motion: in search of the poetic in health and physical education

This article uses poetry to show how we might reimagine the body and movement in ways that speak back to and subvert dominant and neoliberal conceptions of health and physical education (HPE). Drawing on the notion of poiesis and Arnold's conceptualisation of physical education as ‘in through and about movement’, I explore possibilities for poetic responses to the body and movement. These responses aim to unearth the emotional and political elements of movement experiences and highlight how much we lose in positioning movement as transactional, and HPE as only justifiable through extrinsic outcomes.     

美国动作教育与中国传统体育教学模式的比较

对中、美两国的体育教学模式进行了比较，并从教学指导思想、教学目标、操作程序、价值取向、结构特征、案例、师生关系、教学条件等方面进行比较分析，指出目前我国体育教学模式中存在的问题。     

中小学体育教学技能大赛的若干思考

本研究采用文献资料、问卷调查、领队访谈等研究方法,对第一届全国中小学体育教师教学技能大赛进行了现场调查,分析了中小学体育教学技能大赛的价值取向及存在的问题,研究认为,虽然绝大多数群体的价值认同度是一致的,但暴露出的问题也是多元的,如何落实教学技能大赛的初衷,如何更好的搭建起这一载体平台,确立教学技能大赛的逻辑主线,将成为未来一段时期人们值得思考的问题,也才能最终发挥这一载体的应有价值和使命。